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Xu H, Liu Z, Du M, Chen Z. Progression in low-intensity ultrasound-induced tumor radiosensitization. Cancer Med 2024; 13:e7332. [PMID: 38967145 PMCID: PMC11224918 DOI: 10.1002/cam4.7332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Revised: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Radiotherapy (RT) is a widely utilized tumor treatment approach, while a significant obstacle in this treatment modality is the radioresistance exhibited by tumor cells. To enhance the effectiveness of RT, scientists have explored radiosensitization approaches, including the use of radiosensitizers and physical stimuli. Nevertheless, several approaches have exhibited disappointing results including adverse effects and limited efficacy. A safer and more effective method of radiosensitization involves low-intensity ultrasound (LIUS), which selectively targets tumor tissue and enhances the efficacy of radiation therapy. METHODS This review summarized the tumor radioresistance reasons and explored LIUS potential radiosensitization mechanisms. Moreover, it covered diverse LIUS application strategies in radiosensitization, including the use of LIUS alone, ultrasound-targeted intravascular microbubble destruction, ultrasound-mediated targeted radiosensitizers delivery, and sonodynamic therapy. Lastly, the review presented the limitations and prospects of employing LIUS-RT combined therapy in clinical settings, emphasizing the need to connect research findings with practical applications. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION LIUS employs cost-effective equipment to foster tumor radiosensitization, curtail radiation exposure, and elevate the quality of life for patients. This efficacy is attributed to LIUS's ability to utilize thermal, cavitation, and mechanical effects to overcome tumor cell resistance to RT. Multiple experimental analyses have underscored the effectiveness of LIUS in inducing tumor radiosensitization using diverse strategies. While initial studies have shown promising results, conducting more comprehensive clinical trials is crucial to confirm its safety and effectiveness in real-world situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haonan Xu
- Key Laboratory of Medical Imaging Precision Theranostics and Radiation Protection, College of Hunan Province, The Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical SchoolUniversity of South ChinaChangshaHunan ProvinceChina
- Institute of Medical Imaging, Hengyang Medical School, University of South ChinaHengyangHunan ProvinceChina
| | - Zichao Liu
- Institute of Medical Imaging, Hengyang Medical School, University of South ChinaHengyangHunan ProvinceChina
- The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Hunan Veterans Administration Hospital, Hengyang Medical SchoolUniversity of South ChinaChangshaHunan ProvinceChina
| | - Meng Du
- Key Laboratory of Medical Imaging Precision Theranostics and Radiation Protection, College of Hunan Province, The Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical SchoolUniversity of South ChinaChangshaHunan ProvinceChina
- Institute of Medical Imaging, Hengyang Medical School, University of South ChinaHengyangHunan ProvinceChina
| | - Zhiyi Chen
- Key Laboratory of Medical Imaging Precision Theranostics and Radiation Protection, College of Hunan Province, The Affiliated Changsha Central Hospital, Hengyang Medical SchoolUniversity of South ChinaChangshaHunan ProvinceChina
- Institute of Medical Imaging, Hengyang Medical School, University of South ChinaHengyangHunan ProvinceChina
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Feng S, Wang Z, Li A, Xie X, Liu J, Li S, Li Y, Wang B, Hu L, Yang L, Guo T. Strategies for High-Efficiency Mutation Using the CRISPR/Cas System. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 9:803252. [PMID: 35198566 PMCID: PMC8860194 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.803252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-associated systems have revolutionized traditional gene-editing tools and are a significant tool for ameliorating gene defects. Characterized by high target specificity, extraordinary efficiency, and cost-effectiveness, CRISPR/Cas systems have displayed tremendous potential for genetic manipulation in almost any organism and cell type. Despite their numerous advantages, however, CRISPR/Cas systems have some inherent limitations, such as off-target effects, unsatisfactory efficiency of delivery, and unwanted adverse effects, thereby resulting in a desire to explore approaches to address these issues. Strategies for improving the efficiency of CRISPR/Cas-induced mutations, such as reducing off-target effects, improving the design and modification of sgRNA, optimizing the editing time and the temperature, choice of delivery system, and enrichment of sgRNA, are comprehensively described in this review. Additionally, several newly emerging approaches, including the use of Cas variants, anti-CRISPR proteins, and mutant enrichment, are discussed in detail. Furthermore, the authors provide a deep analysis of the current challenges in the utilization of CRISPR/Cas systems and the future applications of CRISPR/Cas systems in various scenarios. This review not only serves as a reference for improving the maturity of CRISPR/Cas systems but also supplies practical guidance for expanding the applicability of this technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuying Feng
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Zilong Wang
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Aifang Li
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xin Xie
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Junjie Liu
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Shuxuan Li
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yalan Li
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Baiyan Wang
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Lina Hu
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Lianhe Yang
- Medical College, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Tao Guo
- Department of Pharmacy, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
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Peng C, Wu Y, Yang Y, Li N, Chen X, Gu L, Xu D, Yang C. Using ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction to enhance radiotherapy of glioblastoma. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2021; 147:1355-1363. [PMID: 33547949 PMCID: PMC8021517 DOI: 10.1007/s00432-021-03542-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 10/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the efficacy and mechanism of ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction (UTMD) combined with radiotherapy (XRT) on glioblastoma. METHODS The enhanced radiosensitization by UTMD was assessed through colony formation and cell apoptosis in Human glioblastoma cells (U87MG). Subcutaneous transplantation tumors in 24 nude mice implanted with U87MG cells were randomly assigned to 4 different treatment groups (Control, UTMD, XRT, and UTMD + XRT) based on tumor sizes (100-300 mm3). Tumor growth was observed for 10 days after treatment, and then histopathology stains (HE, CD34, and γH2AX) were applied to the tumor samples. A TUNEL staining experiment was applied to detect the apoptosis rate of mice tumor samples. Meanwhile, tissue proteins were extracted from animal specimens, and the expressions of dsDNA break repair-related proteins from animal specimens were examined by the western blot. RESULTS When the radiotherapy dose was 4 Gy, the colony formation rate of U87MG cells in the UTMD + XRT group was 32 ± 8%, lower than the XRT group (54 ± 14%, p < 0.01). The early apoptotic rate of the UTMD + XRT group was 21.1 ± 3% at 48 h, higher than that of the XRT group (15.2 ± 4%). The tumor growth curve indicated that the tumor growth was inhibited in the UTMD + XRT group compared with other groups during 10 days of observation. In TUNEL experiment, the apoptotic cells of the UTMD + XRT group were higher than that of the XRT group (p < 0.05). The UTMD + XRT group had the lowest MVD value, but was not significantly different from other groups (p > 0.05). In addition, γH2AX increased due to the addition of UTMD to radiotherapy compared to XRT in immunohistochemistry (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Our study clearly demonstrated the enhanced destructive effect of UTMD combined with 4 Gy radiotherapy on glioblastoma. This could be partly achieved by the increased ability of DNA damage of tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chanjuan Peng
- Department of Ultrasound in Medicine, Cancer Hospital of the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Zhejiang Cancer Hospital), Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China.,Institute of Cancer and Basic Medicine (IBMC), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yong Wu
- Department of Medical Engineering, Cancer Hospital of the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Zhejiang Cancer Hospital), Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China.,Institute of Cancer and Basic Medicine (IBMC), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Cancer Hospital of the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Zhejiang Cancer Hospital), Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China.,Institute of Cancer and Basic Medicine (IBMC), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China
| | - Ningning Li
- Department of Pathology, Cancer Hospital of the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Zhejiang Cancer Hospital), Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China.,Institute of Cancer and Basic Medicine (IBMC), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of Ultrasound in Medicine, Cancer Hospital of the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Zhejiang Cancer Hospital), Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China.,Institute of Cancer and Basic Medicine (IBMC), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China
| | - Linhui Gu
- Department of Core Facility Service, Cancer Hospital of the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Zhejiang Cancer Hospital), Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China.,Institute of Cancer and Basic Medicine (IBMC), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China
| | - Dong Xu
- Department of Ultrasound in Medicine, Cancer Hospital of the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Zhejiang Cancer Hospital), Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China. .,Institute of Cancer and Basic Medicine (IBMC), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Chen Yang
- Department of Ultrasound in Medicine, Cancer Hospital of the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Zhejiang Cancer Hospital), Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China. .,Institute of Cancer and Basic Medicine (IBMC), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, 310022, Zhejiang, China.
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Mashel TV, Tarakanchikova YV, Muslimov AR, Zyuzin MV, Timin AS, Lepik KV, Fehse B. Overcoming the delivery problem for therapeutic genome editing: Current status and perspective of non-viral methods. Biomaterials 2020; 258:120282. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.120282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Shen Z, Shao J, Zhang J, Qu W. Ultrasound cavitation enhanced chemotherapy: In vivo research and clinical application. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2020; 245:1200-1212. [PMID: 32567346 DOI: 10.1177/1535370220936150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
IMPACT STATEMENT The novelty of this research is that we used ultrasound cavitation to enhance the effects of chemotherapy in the subcutaneous and orthotopic hepatic carcinomas in nude mice. Case reports of the effects of the targeting ultrasound cavitation and chemotherapy on malignant tumors in clinical patients were also examined. We found that low-frequency ultrasound cavitation combined with chemotherapy is effective in the inhibition of tumor growth to some extent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyong Shen
- Department of Radiology, Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Nantong University, Jiangsu 226361, PR China
| | - Jingjing Shao
- Department of Radiology, Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Nantong University, Jiangsu 226361, PR China
| | - Jianquan Zhang
- Department of Radiology, Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Nantong University, Jiangsu 226361, PR China
| | - Weixing Qu
- Department of Radiology, Affiliated Tumor Hospital of Nantong University, Jiangsu 226361, PR China
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Du X, Wang J, Zhou Q, Zhang L, Wang S, Zhang Z, Yao C. Advanced physical techniques for gene delivery based on membrane perforation. Drug Deliv 2018; 25:1516-1525. [PMID: 29968512 PMCID: PMC6058615 DOI: 10.1080/10717544.2018.1480674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene delivery as a promising and valid tool has been used for treating many serious diseases that conventional drug therapies cannot cure. Due to the advancement of physical technology and nanotechnology, advanced physical gene delivery methods such as electroporation, magnetoporation, sonoporation and optoporation have been extensively developed and are receiving increasing attention, which have the advantages of briefness and nontoxicity. This review introduces the technique detail of membrane perforation, with a brief discussion for future development, with special emphasis on nanoparticles mediated optoporation that have developed as an new alternative transfection technique in the last two decades. In particular, the advanced physical approaches development and new technology are highlighted, which intends to stimulate rapid advancement of perforation techniques, develop new delivery strategies and accelerate application of these techniques in clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofan Du
- a Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering of Ministry of Education, Institute of Biomedical Analytical Technology and Instrumentation , School of Life Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University , Xi'an , People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Wang
- a Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering of Ministry of Education, Institute of Biomedical Analytical Technology and Instrumentation , School of Life Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University , Xi'an , People's Republic of China
| | - Quan Zhou
- a Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering of Ministry of Education, Institute of Biomedical Analytical Technology and Instrumentation , School of Life Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University , Xi'an , People's Republic of China
| | - Luwei Zhang
- a Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering of Ministry of Education, Institute of Biomedical Analytical Technology and Instrumentation , School of Life Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University , Xi'an , People's Republic of China
| | - Sijia Wang
- a Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering of Ministry of Education, Institute of Biomedical Analytical Technology and Instrumentation , School of Life Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University , Xi'an , People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenxi Zhang
- a Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering of Ministry of Education, Institute of Biomedical Analytical Technology and Instrumentation , School of Life Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University , Xi'an , People's Republic of China
| | - Cuiping Yao
- a Key Laboratory of Biomedical Information Engineering of Ministry of Education, Institute of Biomedical Analytical Technology and Instrumentation , School of Life Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University , Xi'an , People's Republic of China
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Shen ZY, Jiang YM, Zhou YF, Si HF, Wang L. High-speed photographic observation of the sonication of a rabbit carotid artery filled with microbubbles by 20-kHz low frequency ultrasound. ULTRASONICS SONOCHEMISTRY 2018; 40:980-987. [PMID: 28946510 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultsonch.2017.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2017] [Revised: 08/29/2017] [Accepted: 09/08/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study is to assess the physical damage of cavitation effects induced by low frequency ultrasound and microbubbles (MBs) to an in vitro vessel. A rabbit carotid artery filled with SonoVue MBs and methylene blue was irradiated with 20-kHz ultrasound, and the results were recorded by high-speed photography at 3000 frames per second. The carotid artery filled with MBs experienced a slight tremor during ultrasonication. Six intermittent blue flow events occurred in two places on the artery wall during the 5-s process. The duration of each leakage event was 90-360ms with an average of 200ms. Hematoxylin-eosin (H-E) staining demonstrated the separation of the carotid artery elastic membrane, local blood vessel wall defects and hole formation, and the surface of the ruptured area was rough and irregular. Another carotid artery was filled with a 0.9% NaCl solution and methylene blue as a control and irradiated with 20-kHz ultrasound. No blue liquid flow was seen, and no holes in the vessel were observed. H-E staining revealed intact vascular endothelial cells and smooth muscles with no vascular wall defects. Low-frequency ultrasound combined with MBs can cause a vessel to rupture and holes to form in a short time. High-speed photography is useful for observing transient changes caused by the effects of ultrasound cavitation on an in vitro vessel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Yong Shen
- Department of Radiology, Nantong University affiliated Nantong Tumor Hospital, 226361, PR China.
| | - Ying Mei Jiang
- Nantong University Affiliated Laboratory Animal Center, 226001, PR China
| | - Yu Feng Zhou
- Department of Radiology, Nantong University affiliated Nantong Tumor Hospital, 226361, PR China
| | - Hai Feng Si
- Department of Radiology, Nantong University affiliated Nantong Tumor Hospital, 226361, PR China
| | - Li Wang
- Department of Radiology, Nantong University affiliated Nantong Tumor Hospital, 226361, PR China
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Shen ZY, Liu C, Wu MF, Shi HF, Zhou YF, Zhuang W, Xia GL. Spiral computed tomography evaluation of rabbit VX2 hepatic tumors treated with 20 kHz ultrasound and microbubbles. Oncol Lett 2017; 14:3124-3130. [PMID: 28928850 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2017.6557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2015] [Accepted: 05/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to explore the therapeutic effect of 20 kHz ultrasound (US) and microbubbles (MBs) on rabbit VX2 liver tumors by spiral computed tomography (CT) scanning. A total of 16 New Zealand rabbits with hepatic VX2 tumors were divided into four groups: Control, MB, low-frequency US and US + MB. The treatment effect was evaluated by spiral CT scanning prior to, during and following treatment (at 0 weeks and the end of 1 and 2 weeks). The tumor growth rate was recorded. The specimens of VX2 tumors were collected for histological examination and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). No significant differences were observed between tumor areas measured by CT and pathology after 2-week treatment (P>0.05). The mean tumor growth rates in the control, MB, US and US + MB groups after 2 weeks of treatment were 385±21, 353±12, 302±14 and 154±9%, respectively (P<0.05, US + MB vs. the other three groups). Hematoxylin and eosin staining in the US + MB group revealed coagulation necrosis, interstitial hemorrhage and intravascular thrombosis. In the control, MB and US groups, tumor cells exhibited clear nuclear hyperchromatism. TEM of US + MB revealed vascular endothelial cell wall rupture, widened endothelial cell gaps, interstitial erythrocyte leakage and microvascular thrombosis, while intact vascular endothelial cells and normal erythrocytes in the tumor vessels were observed in the control, MB and US groups. A combination of 20 kHz US and MBs may effectively inhibit rabbit VX2 tumors. Spiral CT scanning is an ideal method to evaluate the US treatment on rabbit tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Yong Shen
- Department of Radiology, Nantong Tumor Hospital, Nantong, Jiangsu 226361, P.R. China
| | - Chun Liu
- Laboratory Animal Center of Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu 226001, P.R. China
| | - Ming-Feng Wu
- Department of Radiology, Nantong Tumor Hospital, Nantong, Jiangsu 226361, P.R. China
| | - Hai-Feng Shi
- Department of Radiology, Nantong Tumor Hospital, Nantong, Jiangsu 226361, P.R. China
| | - Yu-Feng Zhou
- Department of Radiology, Nantong Tumor Hospital, Nantong, Jiangsu 226361, P.R. China
| | - Wei Zhuang
- Department of Radiology, Nantong Tumor Hospital, Nantong, Jiangsu 226361, P.R. China
| | - Gan-Lin Xia
- Department of Radiology, Nantong Tumor Hospital, Nantong, Jiangsu 226361, P.R. China
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Lee H, Kim H, Han H, Lee M, Lee S, Yoo H, Chang JH, Kim H. Microbubbles used for contrast enhanced ultrasound and theragnosis: a review of principles to applications. Biomed Eng Lett 2017; 7:59-69. [PMID: 30603152 PMCID: PMC6208473 DOI: 10.1007/s13534-017-0016-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2016] [Revised: 12/26/2016] [Accepted: 01/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Ultrasound was developed several decades ago as a useful imaging modality, and it became the second most popular diagnostic tool due to its non-invasiveness, real-time capabilities, and safety. Additionally, ultrasound has been used as a therapeutic tool with several therapeutic agents and in nanomedicine. Ultrasound imaging is often used to diagnose many types of cancers, including breast, stomach, and thyroid cancers. In addition, ultrasound-mediated therapy is used in cases of joint inflammation, rheumatoid arthritis, and osteoarthritis. Microbubbles, when used as ultrasound contrast agents, can act as echo-enhancers and therapeutic agents, and they can play an essential role in ultrasound imaging and ultrasound-mediated therapy. Recently, various types of ultrasound contrast agents made of lipid, polymer, and protein shells have been used. Air, nitrogen, and perfluorocarbon are usually included in the core of the microbubbles to enhance ultrasound imaging, and therapeutic drugs are conjugated and loaded onto the surface or into the core of the microbubbles, depending on the purpose and properties of the substance. Many research groups have utilized ultrasound contrast agents to enhance the imaging signal in blood vessels or tissues and to overcome the blood-brain barrier or blood-retina barrier. These agents are also used to help treat diseases in various regions or systems of the body, such as the cardiovascular system, or as a cancer treatment. In addition, with the introduction of targeted moiety and multiple functional groups, ultrasound contrast agents are expected to have a potential future in ultrasound imaging and therapy. In this paper, we briefly review the principles of ultrasound and introduce the underlying theory, applications, limitations, and future perspectives of ultrasound contrast agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hohyeon Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul, 04107 Republic of Korea
| | - Haemin Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul, 04107 Republic of Korea
| | - Hyounkoo Han
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul, 04107 Republic of Korea
| | - Minji Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul, 04107 Republic of Korea
| | - Sunho Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul, 04107 Republic of Korea
| | - Hongkeun Yoo
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul, 04107 Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Ho Chang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul, 04107 Republic of Korea
- Sogang Institute of Advanced Technology, Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul, 04107 Republic of Korea
| | - Hyuncheol Kim
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul, 04107 Republic of Korea
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul, 04107 Republic of Korea
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