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Fuentes-Rodriguez A, Mitchell A, Guérin SL, Landreville S. Recent Advances in Molecular and Genetic Research on Uveal Melanoma. Cells 2024; 13:1023. [PMID: 38920653 PMCID: PMC11201764 DOI: 10.3390/cells13121023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2024] [Revised: 06/08/2024] [Accepted: 06/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Uveal melanoma (UM), a distinct subtype of melanoma, presents unique challenges in its clinical management due to its complex molecular landscape and tendency for liver metastasis. This review highlights recent advancements in understanding the molecular pathogenesis, genetic alterations, and immune microenvironment of UM, with a focus on pivotal genes, such as GNAQ/11, BAP1, and CYSLTR2, and delves into the distinctive genetic and chromosomal classifications of UM, emphasizing the role of mutations and chromosomal rearrangements in disease progression and metastatic risk. Novel diagnostic biomarkers, including circulating tumor cells, DNA and extracellular vesicles, are discussed, offering potential non-invasive approaches for early detection and monitoring. It also explores emerging prognostic markers and their implications for patient stratification and personalized treatment strategies. Therapeutic approaches, including histone deacetylase inhibitors, MAPK pathway inhibitors, and emerging trends and concepts like CAR T-cell therapy, are evaluated for their efficacy in UM treatment. This review identifies challenges in UM research, such as the limited treatment options for metastatic UM and the need for improved prognostic tools, and suggests future directions, including the discovery of novel therapeutic targets, immunotherapeutic strategies, and advanced drug delivery systems. The review concludes by emphasizing the importance of continued research and innovation in addressing the unique challenges of UM to improve patient outcomes and develop more effective treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélie Fuentes-Rodriguez
- Department of Ophthalmology and Otorhinolaryngology-Cervico-Facial Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; (A.F.-R.); (A.M.); (S.L.G.)
- Hôpital du Saint-Sacrement, Regenerative Medicine Division, CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Centre, Quebec City, QC G1S 4L8, Canada
- Centre de Recherche en Organogénèse Expérimentale de l‘Université Laval/LOEX, Quebec City, QC G1J 1Z4, Canada
- Université Laval Cancer Research Center, Quebec City, QC G1R 3S3, Canada
| | - Andrew Mitchell
- Department of Ophthalmology and Otorhinolaryngology-Cervico-Facial Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; (A.F.-R.); (A.M.); (S.L.G.)
- Hôpital du Saint-Sacrement, Regenerative Medicine Division, CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Centre, Quebec City, QC G1S 4L8, Canada
- Centre de Recherche en Organogénèse Expérimentale de l‘Université Laval/LOEX, Quebec City, QC G1J 1Z4, Canada
- Université Laval Cancer Research Center, Quebec City, QC G1R 3S3, Canada
| | - Sylvain L. Guérin
- Department of Ophthalmology and Otorhinolaryngology-Cervico-Facial Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; (A.F.-R.); (A.M.); (S.L.G.)
- Hôpital du Saint-Sacrement, Regenerative Medicine Division, CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Centre, Quebec City, QC G1S 4L8, Canada
- Centre de Recherche en Organogénèse Expérimentale de l‘Université Laval/LOEX, Quebec City, QC G1J 1Z4, Canada
| | - Solange Landreville
- Department of Ophthalmology and Otorhinolaryngology-Cervico-Facial Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Quebec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada; (A.F.-R.); (A.M.); (S.L.G.)
- Hôpital du Saint-Sacrement, Regenerative Medicine Division, CHU de Québec-Université Laval Research Centre, Quebec City, QC G1S 4L8, Canada
- Centre de Recherche en Organogénèse Expérimentale de l‘Université Laval/LOEX, Quebec City, QC G1J 1Z4, Canada
- Université Laval Cancer Research Center, Quebec City, QC G1R 3S3, Canada
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Liu B, Yao X, Shang Y, Dai J. The multiple roles of autophagy in uveal melanoma and the microenvironment. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2024; 150:121. [PMID: 38467935 PMCID: PMC10927889 DOI: 10.1007/s00432-023-05576-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Uveal melanoma (UM) is the most common primary malignant intraocular tumor in adults, and effective clinical treatment strategies are still lacking. Autophagy is a lysosome-dependent degradation system that can encapsulate abnormal proteins, damaged organelles. However, dysfunctional autophagy has multiple types and plays a complex role in tumorigenicity depending on many factors, such as tumor stage, microenvironment, signaling pathway activation, and application of autophagic drugs. METHODS A systematic review of the literature was conducted to analyze the role of autophagy in UM, as well as describing the development of autophagic drugs and the link between autophagy and the tumor microenvironment. RESULTS In this review, we summarize current research advances regarding the types of autophagy, the mechanisms of autophagy, the application of autophagy inhibitors or agonists, autophagy and the tumor microenvironment. Finally, we also discuss the relationship between autophagy and UM. CONCLUSION Understanding the molecular mechanisms of how autophagy differentially affects tumor progression may help to design better therapeutic regimens to prevent and treat UM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xueting Yao
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Longhua Hospital, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yu Shang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinhui Dai
- Department of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Hospital Affiliated to Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
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Wang JZ, Paulus P, Niu Y, Zhu L, Morisseau C, Rawling T, Murray M, Hammock BD, Zhou F. The Role of Autophagy in Human Uveal Melanoma and the Development of Potential Disease Biomarkers and Novel Therapeutic Paradigms. Biomedicines 2024; 12:462. [PMID: 38398064 PMCID: PMC10886749 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12020462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a form of programmed cell degradation that enables the maintenance of homeostasis in response to extracellular stress stimuli. Autophagy is primarily activated by starvation and mediates the degradation, removal, or recycling of cell cytoplasm, organelles, and intracellular components in eukaryotic cells. Autophagy is also involved in the pathogenesis of human diseases, including several cancers. Human uveal melanoma (UM) is the primary intraocular malignancy in adults and has an extremely poor prognosis; at present there are no effective therapies. Several studies have suggested that autophagy is important in UM. By understanding the mechanisms of activation of autophagy in UM it may be possible to develop biomarkers to provide more definitive disease prognoses and to identify potential drug targets for the development of new therapeutic strategies. This article reviews the current information regarding autophagy in UM that could facilitate biomarker and drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janney Z. Wang
- Molecular Drug Development Group, Sydney Pharmacy School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Paus Paulus
- Molecular Drug Development Group, Sydney Pharmacy School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Yihe Niu
- Molecular Drug Development Group, Sydney Pharmacy School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Ling Zhu
- Save Sight Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Christophe Morisseau
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, UCD Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA (B.D.H.)
| | - Tristan Rawling
- School of Mathematical and Physical Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia;
| | - Michael Murray
- Molecular Drug Development Group, Sydney Pharmacy School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Bruce D. Hammock
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, UCD Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA (B.D.H.)
| | - Fanfan Zhou
- Molecular Drug Development Group, Sydney Pharmacy School, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
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Taskaeva I, Shatruk A, Bgatova N, Yeremina A, Trunov A, Kononova N, Chernykh V. Autophagy and vesicular trafficking in human uveal melanoma: A histopathological study. Microsc Res Tech 2024; 87:122-132. [PMID: 37698482 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.24417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Revised: 08/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
Uveal melanoma is an ocular tumor with a high risk of developing metastases. The endo-lysosomal system can affect the melanoma progression by accelerating and facilitating invasion or metastasis. This study aims to conduct comparative analysis of normal choroidal melanocytes and uveal melanoma cells ultrastructure with a focus on intracellular transport system, and to examine the patterns of autophagy- and vesicular trafficking-related proteins expression in a case series of uveal melanomas. Transmission electron microscopy was used to assess the ultrastructure of normal choroidal melanocytes and uveal melanoma cells. The expression levels of autophagy- and vesicular trafficking-related proteins in three histological types of uveal melanoma were analyzed by immunofluorescence staining. Electron microscopy results showed that the autophagic vacuoles were more abundant in normal choroidal melanocytes, than in uveal melanoma cells. The normal choroidal melanocytes were characterized by active intracellular vesicular trafficking; however, the proportion of caveolae was higher in uveal melanoma cells. The spindle type of tumor was characterized by a high expression levels of LC3 beta, while Rab7 and Rab11 proteins expression was significantly up-regulated in the mixed-type tumor cells. The results indicate that uveal melanoma cells probably have lower basal levels of autophagy and higher receptor-mediated endocytic trafficking-associated with caveolae than normal choroidal melanocytes. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: The autophagic vacuoles are abundant in normal choroidal melanocytes. Uveal melanoma cells are characterized by a high proportion of caveolae. The high expression levels of LC3 beta were revealed in a spindle type of tumor, while Rab7 and Rab11 proteins expression was up-regulated in the mixed-type tumor cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iuliia Taskaeva
- Laboratory of Ultrastructural Research, Research Institute of Clinical and Experimental Lymphology - Branch of the Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Anastasia Shatruk
- Laboratory of Ultrastructural Research, Research Institute of Clinical and Experimental Lymphology - Branch of the Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Nataliya Bgatova
- Laboratory of Ultrastructural Research, Research Institute of Clinical and Experimental Lymphology - Branch of the Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Alena Yeremina
- S. N. Fyodorov Federal State Institution National Medical Research Center Intersectoral Research and Technology Complex "Eye Microsurgery" Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Aleksander Trunov
- S. N. Fyodorov Federal State Institution National Medical Research Center Intersectoral Research and Technology Complex "Eye Microsurgery" Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Natalya Kononova
- S. N. Fyodorov Federal State Institution National Medical Research Center Intersectoral Research and Technology Complex "Eye Microsurgery" Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Valeriy Chernykh
- S. N. Fyodorov Federal State Institution National Medical Research Center Intersectoral Research and Technology Complex "Eye Microsurgery" Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, Novosibirsk, Russia
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Huang Y, Zhen Y, Chen Y, Sui S, Zhang L. Unraveling the interplay between RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK signaling pathway and autophagy in cancer: From molecular mechanisms to targeted therapy. Biochem Pharmacol 2023; 217:115842. [PMID: 37802240 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2023.115842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/08/2023]
Abstract
RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK signaling pathway is one of the most important pathways of Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), which widely participate in regulating cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis and signaling transduction. Autophagy is an essential mechanism that maintains cellular homeostasis by degrading aged and damaged organelles. Recently, some studies revealed RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK signaling pathway is closely related to autophagy regulation and has a dual effect in tumor cells. However, the specific mechanism by which RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK signaling pathway participates in autophagy regulation is not fully understood. This article provides a comprehensive review of the research progress with regard to the RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK signaling pathway and autophagy, as well as their interplay in cancer therapy. The impact of small molecule inhibitors that target the RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK signaling pathway on autophagy is discussed in this study. The advantages and limitations of the clinical combination of these small molecule inhibitors with autophagy inhibitors are also explored. The findings from this study may provide additional perspectives for future cancer treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunli Huang
- Sichuan Engineering Research Center for Biomimetic Synthesis of Natural Drugs, School of Life Science and Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China
| | - Yongqi Zhen
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Yanmei Chen
- Department of Biotherapy, Cancer Center and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Shaoguang Sui
- Emergency Department, The Second Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116000, China.
| | - Lan Zhang
- Sichuan Engineering Research Center for Biomimetic Synthesis of Natural Drugs, School of Life Science and Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, China.
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Zhang X, Li H, Liu C, Yuan X. Role of ROS‑mediated autophagy in melanoma (Review). Mol Med Rep 2022; 26:303. [PMID: 35946460 PMCID: PMC9434998 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2022.12819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Melanoma is the most aggressive form of skin cancer with the poorest prognosis and its pathogenesis has yet to be fully elucidated. As key factors that regulate cellular homeostasis, both reactive oxygen species (ROS) and autophagy are involved in the development of melanoma, from melanomagenesis to progression and drug resistance. However, the interaction between ROS and autophagy in the etiology and treatment of melanoma is not well characterized. The present review examined the production of ROS and the role of oxidative stress in melanoma, and summarized the role of ROS‑mediated autophagy in melanomagenesis and melanoma cell fate decision following treatment with various anticancer drugs. The present findings may lead to a better understanding of the pathogenesis and progression of melanoma, and suggest promising treatment options for this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuebing Zhang
- Department of Dermatology, Heilongjiang Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150001, P.R. China
| | - Huaijun Li
- Department of Dermatology, Heilongjiang Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150001, P.R. China
| | - Chengxiang Liu
- Department of Dermatology, Heilongjiang Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150001, P.R. China
| | - Xingxing Yuan
- Department of Dermatology, Heilongjiang Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150001, P.R. China
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Celesia A, Notaro A, Franzò M, Lauricella M, D’Anneo A, Carlisi D, Giuliano M, Emanuele S. The Histone Deacetylase Inhibitor ITF2357 (Givinostat) Targets Oncogenic BRAF in Melanoma Cells and Promotes a Switch from Pro-Survival Autophagy to Apoptosis. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10081994. [PMID: 36009541 PMCID: PMC9405675 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10081994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Histone deacetylase inhibitors (HDACI) are epigenetic compounds that have been widely considered very promising antitumor agents. Here, we focus on the effects of the pan-HDAC inhibitor ITF2357 (Givinostat) in comparison with SAHA (Vorinostat) in melanoma cells bearing BRAF V600E oncogenic mutation. Our results indicate both ITF2357 and SAHA dose-dependently reduce the viability of BRAF-mutated SK-MEL-28 and A375 melanoma cells. The comparison of IC50 values revealed that ITF2357 was much more effective than SAHA. Interestingly, both inhibitors markedly decreased oncogenic BRAF protein expression levels, ITF2357 being the most effective compound. Moreover, the BRAF decrease induced by ITF2357 was accompanied by a decrease in the level of phospho-ERK1/2. The inhibitor of upstream MEK activity, U0126, reduced ERK1/2 phosphorylation and dramatically potentiated the antitumor effect of ITF2357, exacerbating the reduction in the BRAF level. ITF2357 stimulated an early pro-survival autophagic response, which was followed by apoptosis, as indicated by apoptotic markers evaluation and the protective effects exerted by the pan-caspase inhibitor z-VADfmk. Overall, our data indicate for the first time that ITF2357 targets oncogenic BRAF in melanoma cells and induces a switch from autophagy to classic apoptosis, thus representing a possible candidate in melanoma targeted therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Celesia
- Department of Biomedicine, Neurosciences and Advanced Diagnostics (BIND), Biochemistry Building, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
| | - Antonietta Notaro
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), Laboratory of Biochemistry, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
| | - Marzia Franzò
- Department of Biomedicine, Neurosciences and Advanced Diagnostics (BIND), Biochemistry Building, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
| | - Marianna Lauricella
- Department of Biomedicine, Neurosciences and Advanced Diagnostics (BIND), Biochemistry Building, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
| | - Antonella D’Anneo
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), Laboratory of Biochemistry, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
| | - Daniela Carlisi
- Department of Biomedicine, Neurosciences and Advanced Diagnostics (BIND), Biochemistry Building, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
| | - Michela Giuliano
- Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies (STEBICEF), Laboratory of Biochemistry, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
- Correspondence: (M.G.); (S.E.)
| | - Sonia Emanuele
- Department of Biomedicine, Neurosciences and Advanced Diagnostics (BIND), Biochemistry Building, University of Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy
- Correspondence: (M.G.); (S.E.)
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Targeting RAS–RAF–MEK–ERK signaling pathway in human cancer: Current status in clinical trials. Genes Dis 2022; 10:76-88. [PMID: 37013062 PMCID: PMC10066287 DOI: 10.1016/j.gendis.2022.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2022] [Revised: 04/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular target inhibitors have been regularly approved by Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for tumor treatment, and most of them intervene in tumor cell proliferation and metabolism. The RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK pathway is a conserved signaling pathway that plays vital roles in cell proliferation, survival, and differentiation. The aberrant activation of the RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK signaling pathway induces tumors. About 33% of tumors harbor RAS mutations, while 8% of tumors are driven by RAF mutations. Great efforts have been dedicated to targeting the signaling pathway for cancer treatment in the past decades. In this review, we summarized the development of inhibitors targeting the RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK pathway with an emphasis on those used in clinical treatment. Moreover, we discussed the potential combinations of inhibitors that target the RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK signaling pathway and other signaling pathways. The inhibitors targeting the RAS-RAF-MEK-ERK pathway have essentially modified the therapeutic strategy against various cancers and deserve more attention in the current cancer research and treatment.
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Ağın A, Kiratli H, Guresci S, Babaoglu B, Karakaya J, Soylemezoglu F. Evaluation of HSP-27, BAP1, BRAF V600E, CCR7, and PD-L1 expression in uveal melanoma on enucleated eyes and metastatic liver tumors. Int J Biol Markers 2022; 37:200-209. [PMID: 35341390 DOI: 10.1177/03936155221088886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The presence of metastatic disease is one of the most important factors limiting survival in patients with uveal melanoma. Studies on proteins associated with metastatic mechanisms are sparse in the literature. METHODS Enucleation samples from 15 patients with metastatic uveal melanoma (Group 1), liver metastasectomy samples from 8 patients with metastatic uveal melanoma (Group 2), and enucleation samples from 20 patients with non-metastatic uveal melanoma as controls (Group 3) were included in the study. Antibodies against heat shock protein 27 (HSP-27), BRCA1-associated protein-1 (BAP1), C-C chemokine receptor 7 (CCR7), B-Raf proto-oncogene serine/threonine-protein kinase V600E (BRAF V600E), and programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) were used to detect immunoreactivity in each sample by immunohistochemical methods. Correlations between these expressed proteins and selected histopathological and clinical features, and metastatic process were investigated. RESULTS The frequencies of HSP-27 (median score: Group 1: 8, Group 2: 12, Group 3: 4) and BRAF V600E expressions (number of samples: Group 1: 4 (26.7%), Group 2: 1 (12.5%), Group 3: 0 (0%)), and BAP1 expression loss (number of samples : Group 1: 12 (80%), Group 2: 8 (100%), Group 3: 9 (45%)) were higher in samples from patients with metastatic uveal melanoma (Group 1 + 2) than in those from patients with non-metastatic disease (Group 3) (P = 0.001, P = 0.034, and P = 0.007, respectively). CCR7 expression (median score: Group 1: 0, Group 2: 2, Group 3: 3) was similar among these three groups (P = 0.136). No samples exhibited PD-L1 expression (P = 1.000). One-unit increases in the HSP-27 expression level and BAP1 expression loss were significantly related to 1.375- and 7.855-fold increases in the risk of metastasis, respectively (P = 0.007 and P = 0.017). CONCLUSION HSP-27 and BAP1 are considered to be associated with metastasis, indicating these proteins as potential treatment targets in metastatic uveal melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdullah Ağın
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Health Science, 147013Haseki Training and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Hayyam Kiratli
- Ocular Oncology Service, Department of Ophthalmology, 37515Hacettepe University School of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Servet Guresci
- Department of Pathology, 536164Ankara City Hospital, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Berrin Babaoglu
- Department of Pathology, 37515Hacettepe University School of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Jale Karakaya
- Department of Biostatistics, 37515Hacettepe University School of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Figen Soylemezoglu
- Department of Pathology, 37515Hacettepe University School of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
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Fatemi I, Dehdashtian E, Pourhanifeh MH, Mehrzadi S, Hosseinzadeh A. Therapeutic Application of Melatonin in the Treatment of Melanoma: A Review. CURRENT CANCER THERAPY REVIEWS 2021. [DOI: 10.2174/1573394717666210526140950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Melanoma is an aggressive type of skin cancer, which is responsible for more deaths
than nonmelanoma skin cancers. Therapeutic strategies include targeted therapy, biochemotherapy,
immunotherapy, photodynamic therapy, chemotherapy, and surgical resection. Depending on the
clinical stage, single or combination therapy may be used to prevent and treat cancer. Due to resistance
development during treatment courses, the efficacy of mentioned therapies can be reduced.
In addition to resistance, these treatments have serious side effects for melanoma patients. According
to available reports, melatonin, a pineal indolamine with a wide spectrum of biological potentials,
has anticancer features. Furthermore, melatonin could protect against chemotherapy- and radiation-
induced adverse events and can sensitize cancer cells to therapy. The present review discusses
the therapeutic application of melatonin in the treatment of melanoma. This review was carried
out in PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases comprising the date of publication period
from January 1976 to March 2021.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iman Fatemi
- Research Center of Tropical and Infectious Diseases, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman,Iran
| | - Ehsan Dehdashtian
- Razi Drug Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran,Iran
| | | | - Saeed Mehrzadi
- Razi Drug Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran,Iran
| | - Azam Hosseinzadeh
- Razi Drug Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran,Iran
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Identification of Six Autophagy-Related-lncRNA Prognostic Biomarkers in Uveal Melanoma. DISEASE MARKERS 2021; 2021:2401617. [PMID: 34426753 PMCID: PMC8379639 DOI: 10.1155/2021/2401617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Currently, no autophagy-related long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) has been reported to predict the prognosis of uveal melanoma patients. Our study screened for autophagy-related lncRNAs in 80 samples downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database through lncRNA-mRNA coexpression. We used univariate Cox to further filter the lncRNAs. Multivariate Cox regression and LASSO regression were applied to construct an autophagy-associated lncRNA predictive model and calculate the risk score. Clinical risk factors were validated using Cox regression to determine whether they were independent prognostic indicators. Functional enrichment was performed using Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes. The model was built with six predictive autophagy-associated lncRNAs and clustered uveal melanoma patients into high- and low-risk groups. The risk score of our model was a significant independent prognostic factor (hazard ratio = 1.0; p < 0.001). Moreover, these six lncRNAs were significantly concentrated in the biological pathways of cytoplasmic component recycling, energy metabolism, and apoptosis. Thus, the six autophagy-associated lncRNAs are potential molecular biomarkers and treatment targets for uveal melanoma patients.
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Lin M, Zhu Q, Li Y, Pan J. Peperomin E Induces Apoptosis and Cytoprotective Autophagy in Human Prostate Cancer DU145 Cells In Vitro and In Vivo. PLANTA MEDICA 2021; 87:620-630. [PMID: 33477173 DOI: 10.1055/a-1348-1634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Peperomin E was first isolated from Peperomia dindygulensis, an anticarcinogenic herb, and exhibited anticancer activity in many cancer cell lines. To date, it is unknown whether peperomin E has an effect on human prostate cancer DU145 cells in vitro and in vivo. In this study, we used MTT to assess the proliferation inhibition activity of peperomin E in DU145 cells in vitro and observed the cell morphological changes by a phase contrast microscope. A DU145 cell xenograft tumor mouse model was used to evaluate the efficacy of peperomin E in vivo. Apoptosis rates were measured by flow cytometry, and protein expression levels were analyzed by western blot. The results showed that peperomin E significantly inhibited the proliferation of DU145 cells in vitro and reduced the weight and volume of tumors in vivo. Peperomin E also significantly induced the apoptosis and autophagic response of DU145 cells. The autophagic inhibitors LY294002 and chloroquine enhanced peperomin E-mediated inhibition of DU145 cell proliferation and induction of DU145 cell apoptosis. The results also showed that the Akt/mTOR pathway participated in peperomin E-induced autophagy in DU145 cells. In summary, our finding showed that peperomin E had an effect on DU145 cells in vitro and in a nude mouse DU145 cell xenograft model in vivo, demonstrated that peperomin E could significantly induce apoptosis and the autophagic response in DU145 cells and that autophagy played a cytoprotective role in peperomin E-treated DU145 cells. These results suggest that the combination of peperomin E treatment and autophagic inhibition has potential for the treatment of prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Lin
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Qiannan Zhu
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China
| | - Yunzhi Li
- School of Pharmacy, Anhui University of Chinese Medicine, Hefei, China
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicinal Formula, Hefei, China
| | - Jigang Pan
- School of Basic Medical Science, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
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13
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Hartman ML. Non-Apoptotic Cell Death Signaling Pathways in Melanoma. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E2980. [PMID: 32340261 PMCID: PMC7215321 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21082980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2020] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Resisting cell death is a hallmark of cancer. Disturbances in the execution of cell death programs promote carcinogenesis and survival of cancer cells under unfavorable conditions, including exposition to anti-cancer therapies. Specific modalities of regulated cell death (RCD) have been classified based on different criteria, including morphological features, biochemical alterations and immunological consequences. Although melanoma cells are broadly equipped with the anti-apoptotic machinery and recurrent genetic alterations in the components of the RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK signaling markedly contribute to the pro-survival phenotype of melanoma, the roles of autophagy-dependent cell death, necroptosis, ferroptosis, pyroptosis, and parthanatos have recently gained great interest. These signaling cascades are involved in melanoma cell response and resistance to the therapeutics used in the clinic, including inhibitors of BRAFmut and MEK1/2, and immunotherapy. In addition, the relationships between sensitivity to non-apoptotic cell death routes and specific cell phenotypes have been demonstrated, suggesting that plasticity of melanoma cells can be exploited to modulate response of these cells to different cell death stimuli. In this review, the current knowledge on the non-apoptotic cell death signaling pathways in melanoma cell biology and response to anti-cancer drugs has been discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariusz L Hartman
- Department of Molecular Biology of Cancer, Medical University of Lodz, 6/8 Mazowiecka Street, 92-215 Lodz, Poland
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14
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Overcoming Resistance to Therapies Targeting the MAPK Pathway in BRAF-Mutated Tumours. JOURNAL OF ONCOLOGY 2020; 2020:1079827. [PMID: 32411231 PMCID: PMC7199609 DOI: 10.1155/2020/1079827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Overactivation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway is an important driver of many human cancers. First line, FDA-approved therapies targeting MAPK signalling, which include BRAF and MEK inhibitors, have variable success across cancers, and a significant number of patients quickly develop resistance. In recent years, a number of preclinical studies have reported alternative methods of overcoming resistance, which include promoting apoptosis, modulating autophagy, and targeting mitochondrial metabolism. This review summarizes mechanisms of resistance to approved MAPK-targeted therapies in BRAF-mutated cancers and discusses novel preclinical approaches to overcoming resistance.
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Abstract
Malignant melanoma is the most aggressive and notorious skin cancer, and metastatic disease is associated with very poor long-term survival outcomes. Although metastatic melanoma patients with oncogenic mutations in the BRAF gene initially respond well to the treatment with specific BRAF inhibitors, most of them will eventually develop resistance to this targeted therapy. As a highly conserved catabolic process, autophagy is responsible for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and cell survival, and is involved in multiple diseases, including cancer. Recent study results have indicated that autophagy might play a decisive role in the resistance to BRAF inhibitors in BRAF-mutated melanomas. In this review, we will discuss how autophagy is up-regulated by BRAF inhibitors, and how autophagy induces the resistance to these agents.
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16
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Li P, He J, Yang Z, Ge S, Zhang H, Zhong Q, Fan X. ZNNT1 long noncoding RNA induces autophagy to inhibit tumorigenesis of uveal melanoma by regulating key autophagy gene expression. Autophagy 2019; 16:1186-1199. [PMID: 31462126 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2019.1659614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are proved to be critical regulators in numerous cellular processes. However, the potential involvement of lncRNAs in macroautophagy/autophagy is largely unknown. Autophagy is a highly regulated cellular degradation system, and its dysregulation is involved in many human diseases, including cancers. Here, we show that the lncRNA ZNNT1 is induced by PP242 and MTORC1 selective inhibitor rapamycin in uveal melanoma (UM) cells. Overexpression of ZNNT1 promotes autophagy by upregulating ATG12 expression, whereas knockdown of ZNNT1 attenuates PP242-induced autophagy. Overexpression of ZNNT1 inhibits tumorigenesis and the migration of UM cells, and knockdown of ATG12 can partially rescue the ZNNT1-induced inhibition of UM tumorigenesis. In summary, our study reveals that ZNNT1 acts as a potential tumor suppressor in UM by inducing autophagy. ABBREVIATIONS ADCD: autophagy dependent cell death; ANXA2R: annexin A2 receptor; ATG12: autophagy- related 12; ATG5: autophagy -related 5; ceRNA: competing endogenous RNAs; CQ: chloroquine; iTRAQ: isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation; lncRNA: long noncoding RNA; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; MTORC1: MTOR complex 1; MTORC2: MTOR cmplex 2; PP242: Torkinib; RACE: rapid amplification of cDNA ends; SQSTM1/p62: sequestosome 1; UM: uveal melanoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Li
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine , Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Orbital Diseases and Ocular Oncology , Shanghai, China
| | - Jie He
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine , Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Orbital Diseases and Ocular Oncology , Shanghai, China
| | - Zhi Yang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine , Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Orbital Diseases and Ocular Oncology , Shanghai, China.,CAS Key Laboratory of Tissue Microenvironment and Tumor, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Shanghai, China
| | - Shengfang Ge
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine , Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Orbital Diseases and Ocular Oncology , Shanghai, China
| | - He Zhang
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, School of Life Science and Technology, Tongji University , Shanghai, China
| | - Qing Zhong
- Key Laboratory of Cell Differentiation and Apoptosis of Chinese Ministry of Education, Department of Pathophysiology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, (SJTU-SM) , Shanghai, P.R. China
| | - Xianqun Fan
- Department of Ophthalmology, Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine , Shanghai, China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Orbital Diseases and Ocular Oncology , Shanghai, China
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17
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Rushton JG, Korb M, Kummer S, Reichart U, Fuchs-Baumgartinger A, Tichy A, Nell B. Protein expression of KIT, BRAF, GNA11, GNAQ and RASSF1 in feline diffuse iris melanomas. Vet J 2019; 249:33-40. [PMID: 31239162 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2019.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Feline iris melanoma, the most common feline intraocular tumour, has a reported metastatic rate of 19-63%. However, there is a lack of knowledge about its molecular biology. Previous studies have reported that feline iris melanomas do not harbour mutations comparable to common mutations found in their human counterpart. Nevertheless, there are differences in the gene expression patterns. The aim of this study was to investigate the protein expression of B-RAF oncogene serine/threonine kinase (BRAF), G protein subunit alpha q (GNAQ) and 11 (GNA11), KIT proto-oncogene receptor tyrosine kinase (KIT), and Ras association family member 1 (RASSF1) in feline iris melanomas. Fifty-seven formalin-fixed paraffin embedded (FFPE) iris melanomas and 25 FFPE eyes without ocular abnormalities were stained with antibodies against the respective proteins using immunofluorescence. Averaged pixel intensities/μm2 and percentage of stained area from total tissue area were measured and the results were compared. Compared to the control group, iris melanomas showed overexpression of BRAF, GNAQ, GNA11 and KIT. The higher expression of BRAF, GNAQ, GNA11 and KIT in feline iris melanomas suggest that these proteins may play a key role in the development of feline iris melanomas and KIT may present a possible target for future therapies in cats with feline iris melanomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- J G Rushton
- Department for Companion Animals and Horses, Vetmeduni Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
| | - M Korb
- VetCore Facility for Research, Vetmeduni Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - S Kummer
- VetCore Facility for Research, Vetmeduni Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - U Reichart
- VetCore Facility for Research, Vetmeduni Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - A Fuchs-Baumgartinger
- Department of Pathobiology, Vetmeduni Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - A Tichy
- Department of Biomedical Science, Vetmeduni Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - B Nell
- Department for Companion Animals and Horses, Vetmeduni Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
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18
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Thyagarajan A, Shaban A, Sahu RP. MicroRNA-Directed Cancer Therapies: Implications in Melanoma Intervention. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2018; 364:1-12. [PMID: 29054858 PMCID: PMC5733457 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.117.242636] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Acquired tumor resistance to cancer therapies poses major challenges in the treatment of cancers including melanoma. Among several signaling pathways or factors that affect neocarcinogenesis, cancer progression, and therapies, altered microRNAs (miRNAs) expression has been identified as a crucial player in modulating the key pathways governing these events. While studies in the miRNA field have grown exponentially in the last decade, much remains to be discovered, particularly with respect to their roles in cancer therapies. Since immune and nonimmune signaling cascades prevail in cancers, identification and evaluation of miRNAs, their molecular mechanisms and cellular targets involved in the underlying development of cancers, and acquired therapeutic resistance would help in devising new strategies for the prognosis, treatment, and an early detection of recurrence. Importantly, in-depth validation of miRNA-targeted molecular events could lead to the development of accurate progression-risk biomarkers, improved effectiveness, and improved patient responses to standard therapies. The current review focuses on the roles of miRNAs with recent updates on regulated cell cycle and proliferation, immune responses, oncogenic/epigenetic signaling pathways, invasion, metastasis, and apoptosis, with broader attention paid to melanomagenesis and melanoma therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Thyagarajan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Boonshoft School of Medicine, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio (A.T., R.P.S.); and Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of veterinary medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt (A.S.)
| | - Ahmed Shaban
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Boonshoft School of Medicine, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio (A.T., R.P.S.); and Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of veterinary medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt (A.S.)
| | - Ravi Prakash Sahu
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Boonshoft School of Medicine, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio (A.T., R.P.S.); and Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of veterinary medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt (A.S.)
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19
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Sample A, He YY. Mechanisms and prevention of UV-induced melanoma. PHOTODERMATOLOGY, PHOTOIMMUNOLOGY & PHOTOMEDICINE 2018; 34:13-24. [PMID: 28703311 PMCID: PMC5760354 DOI: 10.1111/phpp.12329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Melanoma is the deadliest form of skin cancer and its incidence is rising, creating a costly and significant clinical problem. Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, namely UVA (315-400 nm) and UVB (280-315 nm), is a major risk factor for melanoma development. Cumulative UV radiation exposure from sunlight or tanning beds contributes to UV-induced DNA damage, oxidative stress, and inflammation in the skin. A number of factors, including hair color, skin type, genetic background, location, and history of tanning, determine the skin's response to UV radiation. In melanocytes, dysregulation of this UV radiation response can lead to melanoma. Given the complex origins of melanoma, it is difficult to develop curative therapies and universally effective preventative strategies. Here, we describe and discuss the mechanisms of UV-induced skin damage responsible for inducing melanomagenesis, and explore options for therapeutic and preventative interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley Sample
- Department of Medicine, Section of Dermatology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL
- Committee on Cancer Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL
| | - Yu-Ying He
- Department of Medicine, Section of Dermatology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL
- Committee on Cancer Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL
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20
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Obstruction of BRAF V600E transcription by complementary PNA oligomers as a means to inhibit BRAF-mutant melanoma growth. Cancer Gene Ther 2017; 24:401-408. [PMID: 28937091 DOI: 10.1038/cgt.2017.34] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2017] [Accepted: 08/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Peptide nucleic acid (PNA) oligomers are DNA mimics, which are capable of binding gene sequences 1000-fold more avidly than complementary native DNA by strand invasion and effectively obstruct transcription. Irreversibly obstructing the transcription or replication of a gene sequence, such as BRAFV600E, offers a potential route to specifically target the cancer cell itself. We have employed PNA oligomers to target BRAFV600E in a sequence-specific complementary manner. These PNAs have been modified by appending configurationally stabilizing cationic peptides in order to improve their cellular delivery and target avidity. Our results indicate that exposure of the melanoma cell lines to a modified PNA-peptide conjugate complementary to BRAFV600E mutation sequence results in a concentration-dependent and time-dependent inhibition of cell growth that is specific for the BRAFV600E-mutant melanoma cell lines with inhibition of mRNA and protein expression. Xenograft mouse trials show increased tumor growth delay and necrosis with the BRAFV600E-complementary PNA-peptide conjugates as compared with the saline and scrambled PNA sequence controls. Similarly, quantitative measurement shows a 2.5-fold decrease in Ki67 and a 3-fold increase in terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling expression with this approach. PNA-delivery peptide conjugates represent a novel way to target BRAFV600E and represent a new approach in targeting selective oncogenes that induce tumor growth.
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