Cannabidiol inhibits invasion and metastasis in colorectal cancer cells by reversing epithelial-mesenchymal transition through the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

Arctigenin inhibits the progression of colorectal cancer through epithelial-mesenchymal transition via PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a significant disease worldwide, with high mortality rates. Conventional treatment methods often lead to metastasis and drug resistance, highlighting the need to explore new drugs and their potential molecular mechanisms. In this study, we investigated the effects of arctigenin on CRC cell proliferation, migration, invasion, apoptosis, and related protein expression, as well as its potential molecular mechanisms.

METHODS

The CCK-8 assay, transwell migration and invasion assays, flow cytometry, immunoblotting and immunofluorescence staining, western blot and an allograft tumor transplantation model was used.

RESULTS

Our study revealed that arctigenin effectively inhibited CRC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion in a dose-dependent manner, while also inducing apoptosis. At the molecular level, arctigenin significantly downregulated the expressions of PCNA, Bcl2, MMP-2, and MMP-9 and upregulated the expressions of Bax and cleaved caspase-3. Additionally, arctigenin demonstrated the ability to inhibit the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) process by upregulating E-cadherin and downregulating mesenchymal markers, such as N-cadherin, Vimentin, Snail, and Slug. Furthermore, arctigenin could inhibit the activation of the PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling pathway, which has been implicated in cancer progression. In vivo experiments also showed that arctigenin significantly reduced tumor volume and size compared to the control group, with no significant adverse effects on the liver.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to elucidate the mechanism by which arctigenin inhibits colorectal cancer metastasis through the PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling pathway by suppressing the EMT process at the molecular level.

Phytocompounds and Nanoformulations for Anticancer Therapy: A Review

Cancer is a complex disease that affects millions of people and remains a major public health problem worldwide. Conventional cancer treatments, including surgery, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and radiotherapy, have limited achievements and multiple drawbacks, among which are healthy tissue damage and multidrug-resistant phenotype onset. Increasing evidence shows that many plants' natural products, as well as their bioactive compounds, have promising anticancer activity and exhibit minimal toxicity compared to conventional anticancer drugs. However, their widespread use in cancer therapy is severely restricted by limitations in terms of their water solubility, absorption, lack of stability, bioavailability, and selective targeting. The use of nanoformulations for plants' natural product transportation and delivery could be helpful in overcoming these limitations, thus enhancing their therapeutic efficacy and providing the basis for improved anticancer treatment strategies. The present review is aimed at providing an update on some phytocompounds (curcumin, resveratrol, quercetin, and cannabinoids, among others) and their main nanoformulations showing antitumor activities, both in vitro and in vivo, against such different human cancer types as breast and colorectal cancer, lymphomas, malignant melanoma, glioblastoma multiforme, and osteosarcoma. The intracellular pathways underlying phytocompound anticancer activity and the main advantages of nanoformulation employment are also examined. Finally, this review critically analyzes the research gaps and limitations causing the limited success of phytocompounds' and nanoformulations' clinical translation.

Inflammasomes Are Influenced by Epigenetic and Autophagy Mechanisms in Colorectal Cancer Signaling

Inflammasomes contribute to colorectal cancer signaling by primarily inducing inflammation in the surrounding tumor microenvironment. Its role in inflammation is receiving increasing attention, as inflammation has a protumor effect in addition to inducing tissue damage. The inflammasome's function is complex and controlled by several layers of regulation. Epigenetic processes impact the functioning or manifestation of genes that are involved in the control of inflammasomes or the subsequent signaling cascades. Researchers have intensively studied the significance of epigenetic mechanisms in regulation, as they encompass several potential therapeutic targets. The regulatory interactions between the inflammasome and autophagy are intricate, exhibiting both advantageous and harmful consequences. The regulatory aspects between the two entities also encompass several therapeutic targets. The relationship between the activation of the inflammasome, autophagy, and epigenetic alterations in CRC is complex and involves several interrelated pathways. This article provides a brief summary of the newest studies on how epigenetics and autophagy control the inflammasome, with a special focus on their role in colorectal cancer. Based on the latest findings, we also provide an overview of the latest therapeutic ideas for this complex network.

Research Progress on the Mechanism of the Antitumor Effects of Cannabidiol

Cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive ingredient extracted from the hemp plant, has shown therapeutic effects in a variety of diseases, including anxiety, nervous system disorders, inflammation, and tumors. CBD can exert its antitumor effect by regulating the cell cycle, inducing tumor cell apoptosis and autophagy, and inhibiting tumor cell invasion, migration, and angiogenesis. This article reviews the proposed antitumor mechanisms of CBD, aiming to provide references for the clinical treatment of tumor diseases and the rational use of CBD.

Cannabidiol activates MAPK pathway to induce apoptosis, paraptosis, and autophagy in colorectal cancer cells

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) activation by natural compounds is known to be involved in the induction of apoptosis, paraptosis, and autophagy. Cannabidiol (CBD), a bioactive compound found in Cannabis sativa, is endowed with many pharmacological activities. We investigated the cytotoxic effect of CBD in a panel of colorectal cancer (CRC) cells (HT-29, SW480, HCT-116, and HCT-15). CBD induced significant cytotoxicity as evidenced by the results of MTT  assay, live-dead assay, and flow cytometric analysis. Since CBD displayed cytotoxicity against CRC cells, we examined the effect of CBD on apoptosis, paraptosis, and autophagy. CBD decreased the expression of antiapoptotic proteins and increased the Annexin-V-positive as well as TUNEL-positive cells suggesting that CBD induces apoptosis. CBD increased the expression of ATF4 (activating transcription factor 4) and CHOP (CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein homologous protein), elevated endoplasmic reticulum stress, and enhanced reactive oxygen species levels indicating that CBD also promotes paraptosis. CBD also induced the expression of Atg7, phospho-Beclin-1, and LC3 suggesting that CBD also accelerates autophagy. Since, the MAPK pathway is a common cascade that is involved in the regulation of apoptosis, paraptosis, and autophagy, we investigated the effect of CBD on the activation of JNK, p38, and ERK pathways. CBD activated all the forms of MAPK proteins and pharmacological inhibition of these proteins reverted the observed effects. Our findings implied that CBD could induce CRC cell death by activating apoptosis, paraptosis, and autophagy through the activation of the MAPK pathway.

Wnt/β-catenin-driven EMT regulation in human cancers

Metastasis accounts for 90% of cancer-related deaths among the patients. The transformation of epithelial cells into mesenchymal cells with molecular alterations can occur during epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). The EMT mechanism accelerates the cancer metastasis and drug resistance ability in human cancers. Among the different regulators of EMT, Wnt/β-catenin axis has been emerged as a versatile modulator. Wnt is in active form in physiological condition due to the function of GSK-3β that destructs β-catenin, while ligand-receptor interaction impairs GSK-3β function to increase β-catenin stability and promote its nuclear transfer. Regarding the oncogenic function of Wnt/β-catenin, its upregulation occurs in human cancers and it can accelerate EMT-mediated metastasis and drug resistance. The stimulation of Wnt by binding Wnt ligands into Frizzled receptors can enhance β-catenin accumulation in cytoplasm that stimulates EMT and related genes upon nuclear translocation. Wnt/β-catenin/EMT axis has been implicated in augmenting metastasis of both solid and hematological tumors. The Wnt/EMT-mediated cancer metastasis promotes the malignant behavior of tumor cells, causing therapy resistance. The Wnt/β-catenin/EMT axis can be modulated by upstream mediators in which non-coding RNAs are main regulators. Moreover, pharmacological intervention, mainly using phytochemicals, suppresses Wnt/EMT axis in metastasis suppression.

Metallothionein Family Proteins as Regulators of Zinc Ions Synergistically Enhance the Anticancer Effect of Cannabidiol in Human Colorectal Cancer Cells

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a chemical obtained from Cannabis sativa; it has therapeutic effects on anxiety and cognition and anti-inflammatory properties. Although pharmacological applications of CBD in many types of tumors have recently been reported, the mechanism of action of CBD is not yet fully understood. In this study, we perform an mRNA-seq analysis to identify the target genes of CBD after determining the cytotoxic concentrations of CBD using an MTT assay. CBD treatment regulated the expression of genes related to DNA repair and cell division, with metallothionein (MT) family genes being identified as having highly increased expression levels induced by CBD. It was also found that the expression levels of MT family genes were decreased in colorectal cancer tissues compared to those in normal tissues, indicating that the downregulation of MT family genes might be highly associated with colorectal tumor progression. A qPCR experiment revealed that the expression levels of MT family genes were increased by CBD. Moreover, MT family genes were regulated by CBD or crude extract but not by other cannabinoids, suggesting that the expression of MT family genes was specifically induced by CBD. A synergistic effect between CBD and MT gene transfection or zinc ion treatment was found. In conclusion, MT family genes as novel target genes could synergistically increase the anticancer activity of CBD by regulating the zinc ions in human colorectal cancer cells.

In Vitro Antiproliferative Effect of Cannabis Extract PHEC-66 on Melanoma Cell Lines

Melanoma, an aggressive form of skin cancer, can be fatal if not diagnosed and treated early. Melanoma is widely recognized to resist advanced cancer treatments, including immune checkpoint inhibitors, kinase inhibitors, and chemotherapy. Numerous studies have shown that various Cannabis sativa extracts exhibit potential anticancer effects against different types of tumours both in vitro and in vivo. This study is the first to report that PHEC-66, a Cannabis sativa extract, displays antiproliferative effects against MM418-C1, MM329 and MM96L melanoma cells. Although these findings suggest that PHEC-66 has promising potential as a pharmacotherapeutic agent for melanoma treatment, further research is necessary to evaluate its safety, efficacy, and clinical applications.

Antitumor mechanism of cannabidiol hidden behind cancer hallmarks

Cannabinoids have been utilized for recreational and therapeutic purposes for over 4,000 years. As the primary ingredient in exogenous cannabinoids, Cannabidiol (CBD) has drawn a lot of interest from researchers due to its negligible psychotropic side effects and potential tumor-suppressing properties. However, the obscure mechanisms that underlie them remain a mystery. Complex biological mechanisms are involved in the progression of cancer, and malignancies have a variety of acquired biological capabilities, including sustained proliferation, death evasion, neovascularization, tissue invasion and metastasis, immune escape, metabolic reprogramming, induction of tumor-associated inflammation, cancerous stemness and genomic instability. Nowadays, the role of CBD hidden in these hallmarks is gradually revealed. Nevertheless, flaws or inconsistencies in the recent studies addressing the anti-cancer effects of CBD still exist. The purpose of this review is to evaluate the potential mechanisms underlying the role of CBD in a range of tumor-acquired biological capabilities. We propose potential drugs that may have a synergistic effect with CBD and provide optional directions for future research.

Antitumor Effects of Cannabis sativa Bioactive Compounds on Colorectal Carcinogenesis

Cannabis sativa is a multipurpose plant that has been used in medicine for centuries. Recently, considerable research has focused on the bioactive compounds of this plant, particularly cannabinoids and terpenes. Among other properties, these compounds exhibit antitumor effects in several cancer types, including colorectal cancer (CRC). Cannabinoids show positive effects in the treatment of CRC by inducing apoptosis, proliferation, metastasis, inflammation, angiogenesis, oxidative stress, and autophagy. Terpenes, such as β-caryophyllene, limonene, and myrcene, have also been reported to have potential antitumor effects on CRC through the induction of apoptosis, the inhibition of cell proliferation, and angiogenesis. In addition, synergy effects between cannabinoids and terpenes are believed to be important factors in the treatment of CRC. This review focuses on the current knowledge about the potential of cannabinoids and terpenoids from C. sativa to serve as bioactive agents for the treatment of CRC while evidencing the need for further research to fully elucidate the mechanisms of action and the safety of these compounds.

Role of Cannabidiol for Improvement of the Quality of Life in Cancer Patients: Potential and Challenges

There is currently a growing interest in the use of cannabidiol (CBD) to alleviate the symptoms caused by cancer, including pain, sleep disruption, and anxiety. CBD is often self-administered as an over-the-counter supplement, and patients have reported benefits from its use. However, despite the progress made, the mechanisms underlying CBD’s anti-cancer activity remain divergent and unclear. Herein, we provide a comprehensive review of molecular mechanisms to determine convergent anti-cancer actions of CBD from pre-clinical and clinical studies. In vitro studies have begun to elucidate the molecular targets of CBD and provide evidence of CBD’s anti-tumor properties in cell and mouse models of cancer. Furthermore, several clinical trials have been completed testing CBD’s efficacy in treating cancer-related pain. However, most use a mixture of CBD and the psychoactive, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and/or use variable dosing that is not consistent between individual patients. Despite these limitations, significant reductions in pain and opioid use have been reported in cancer patients using CBD or CBD+THC. Additionally, significant improvements in quality-of-life measures and patients’ overall satisfaction with their treatment have been reported. Thus, there is growing evidence suggesting that CBD might be useful to improve the overall quality of life of cancer patients by both alleviating cancer symptoms and by synergizing with cancer therapies to improve their efficacy. However, many questions remain unanswered regarding the use of CBD in cancer treatment, including the optimal dose, effective combinations with other drugs, and which biomarkers/clinical presentation of symptoms may guide its use.