Changes in the activity of glutathione-S-transferase in muscles and sera from mice infected with Trichinella spiralis after treatment with albendazole and levamisole

Superb bio-effectiveness of Cobalt (II) phthalocyanine and Ag NPs adorned Sm-doped ZnO nanorods/cuttlefish bone to annihilate Trichinella spiralis muscle larvae and adult worms: In-vitro evaluation

Herein, innovative biocides are designed for the treatment of Trichinella spiralis muscle larvae (ML) and adult worms. Samarium-doped ZnO nanorods (Sm-doped ZnO) are stabilized onto the laminar structure of cuttlefish bone (CB) matrix and adorned by either Ag NPs or cobalt phthalocyanine (CoPc) species. Physicochemical characteristics of such nanocomposites are scrutinised. Adorning of Sm-doped ZnO/CB with Ag NPs shortens rod-like shaped Sm-doped ZnO nanoparticles and accrues them, developing large-sized detached patches over CB moiety. Meanwhile, adorning of Sm-doped ZnO/CB by CoPc species degenerates CB lamellae forming semi-rounded platelets and encourages invading of Sm-doped ZnO nanorods deeply inside gallery spacings of CB. Both nanocomposites possess advanced parasiticidal activity, displaying quite intoxication for ML and adult worms (≥88% mortality) within an incubation period of <48 h at concentrations around 200 μg/ml. CoPc@Sm-doped ZnO/CB nanocomposite exhibits faster killing efficiency of adult worms than that of Ag@Sm-doped ZnO/CB at a concentration of ∼75 μg/ml showing entire destruction of parasite after 24 h incubation with the former nanocomposite and just 60% worm mortality after 36 h exposure to the later one. Morphological studies of the treated ML and adult worms show that CoPc@Sm-doped ZnO/CB exhibits a destructive impact on the parasite body, creating featureless and sloughed fragments enriched with intensive vacuoles. Hybridization of cuttlefish bone lamellae by CoPc species is considered a springboard for fabrication of futuristic aggressive drugs against various food- and water-borne parasites.

Acetazolamide loaded-silver nanoparticles: A potential treatment for murine trichinellosis

Trichinellosis is a global food-borne disease caused by viviparous parasitic nematodes of the genus Trichinella. Due to the lack of effective, safe therapy and the documented adverse effects of traditional therapy, this study aimed to evaluate the therapeutic effect of acetazolamide-loaded silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) on murine trichinellosis. Fifty male Swiss albino mice were divided into five groups of ten mice each: Group I, normal control group; Group II, infected with T. spiralis and not treated; Group III, infected and given AgNPs; Group IV, infected and treated with acetazolamide; and Group V, infected and treated with acetazolamide-loaded AgNPs. Mice were infected orally with 250 larvae. The efficacy was assessed by counting T. spiralis adults and larvae, measuring serum total antioxidant capacity, and observing the histopathological and ultrastructural alterations. Acetazolamide-loaded AgNPs treatment exhibited the highest percentage of reduction (84.72% and 80.74%) for the intestinal adults and the muscular larvae of T. spiralis-infected animals, respectively. Furthermore, during the intestinal and muscular phases, the serum of the same group had the best free-radical scavenging capacity (antioxidant capacity), which reduced tissue damage induced by oxidative stress. Histopathologically, the normal intestinal and muscular architecture was restored in the group treated with acetazolamide-loaded AgNPs, in addition to the reduced inflammatory infiltrate that alleviated inflammation compared to infected animals. Our results confirmed the marked destruction of the ultrastructural features of T. spiralis adults and larvae. Acetazolamide-loaded AgNPs are a promising therapy against T. spiralis infection.

Comparative Proteomic Analysis of Serum from Pigs Experimentally Infected with Trichinella spiralis, Trichinella britovi, and Trichinella pseudospiralis

Although the available proteomic studies have made it possible to identify and characterize Trichinella stage-specific proteins reacting with infected host-specific antibodies, the vast majority of these studies do not provide any information about changes in the global proteomic serum profile of Trichinella-infested individuals. In view of the above, the present study aimed to examine the protein expression profile of serum obtained at 13 and 60 days postinfection (d.p.i.) from three groups of pigs experimentally infected with Trichinella spiralis, Trichinella britovi, and Trichinella pseudospiralis and from uninfected, control pigs by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) followed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry. The comparative proteomic analysis of the T. spiralis group vs. the control group revealed 5 differently expressed spots at both 13 and 60 d.p.i. Experimental infection with T. britovi induced significant expression changes in 3 protein spots at 13 d.p.i. and in 6 protein spots at 60 d.p.i. in comparison with the control group. Paired analyses between the group infected with T. pseudospiralis and the uninfected control group revealed 6 differently changed spots at 13 d.p.i. and 2 differently changed spots at 60 d.p.i. Among these 27 spots, 15 were successfully identified. Depending on the Trichinella species triggering the infection and the time point of serum collection, they were IgM heavy-chain constant region, antithrombin III-precursor, immunoglobulin gamma-chain, clusterin, homeobox protein Mohawk, apolipoprotein E precursor, serum amyloid P-component precursor, Ig lambda chains, complement C3 isoform X1, and apolipoprotein A-I. Our results demonstrate that various Trichinella species and different phases of the invasion produce a distinct, characteristic proteomic pattern in the serum of experimentally infected pigs.

Nitazoxanide anthelmintic activity against the enteral and parenteral phases of trichinellosis in experimentally infected rats

Most of the drugs used for the treatment of trichinellosis show a limited bioavailability and a high degree of resistance. Therefore, this study aimed to characterize the anthelmintic potential activity of nitazoxanide (NTZ) in a rat model of experimental trichinellosis. Animals were divided into three groups; group I, infected and non-treated; group II, received NTZ for three days post-infection (dpi) and group III, received NTZ 30 dpi for 14 consecutive days. Treatment efficacy was assessed by Trichinella spiralis adult and larval counts, histopathological studies of the small intestine and muscles and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression in the small intestine. T. spiralis adult count was reduced in NTZ -treated group (66.6%) and the larval count decreased to 68.7 and 76.7% in the early and late treatment, respectively. The infected non-treated rats showed massive inflammatory cellular infiltration in the small intestines and muscles. This inflammatory response was minor in the treated groups and was accompanied by a decrease in iNOS expression. Moreover, in group III, the larvae were replaced by homogenized substance with some destructive changes in the capsule. In conclusion, NTZ showed a promising activity against enteral and more effect in parenteral phases of trichinellosis.

Changes in the activity and kinetics of mouse intestinal glutathione transferase during experimental trichinellosis

The glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) are a group of multifunctional enzymes, which play a critical role in cellular detoxification. Our investigations deal with the contribution of GST in the biochemical defense against Trichinella spiralis infection. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of T. spiralis infection on the total activity and kinetic properties of cytosolic GST in the intestine during the intestinal phase of experimental trichinellosis in mice. Our results showed a statistically significant increase (relative to the uninfected control) in the total GST activity both in the small and large intestines of the infected mice. Moreover, we observed changes in the kinetics of substrate saturation of GST. Trichinellosis in the small intestine caused a 12-fold decrease in the low K (m) value and a sixfold increase in the high K (m) value. In the large intestine, infection with T. spiralis caused only a fivefold increase in the low K (m) value, whereas the high K (m) value remained unchanged. We suggest that GST from the mouse small intestine could be involved in the detoxification of parasite excretory-secretory products released to the host intestine during trichinellosis and that these products influence the quaternary structure of this enzyme.

Selenium supplementation at low doses contributes to the antioxidant status in Trichinella spiralis-infected rats

Selenium (Se) supplementation may prevent the formation of free radicals and lipid peroxidation processes in trichinellosis. The oxidative-antioxidant status of male Wistar rats infected or uninfected with Trichinella spiralis (Nematoda) and supplemented or unsupplemented with Sel-plex (Alltech) was tested through blood biomarkers. Sel-plex was applied to restore antioxidant defense system. The oxidative marker was malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration. The antioxidant markers were superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities and concentrations of Se and vitamin E. The animals were allocated into four groups. The experiment covered 8 weeks post infection. A mathematical model was proposed for the time course of host body weight. The model solutions were in good agreement with the experimental data. The relative rates of body weight gain were determined as growth kinetic parameters. The supplementation of the rats with dietary Se improved their antioxidant status. Increases by 10% in SOD activity, 6% in GPx activity, 13% in vitamin E concentration, 17% in plasma Se concentration, and 19% in liver Se concentration, respectively, and a decrease by 18% in serum MDA concentration were recorded in the infected and supplemented towards infected and unsupplemented rats. The reduction of muscle larvae after Sel-plex application was 63%. The mortality in infected and uninfected animals did not differ significantly. No statistically significant differences were established between the growth of the control and infected rats. At week 8, the body weight gain in the supplemented rats (both uninfected and infected) was 30% higher, compared to that in unsupplemented ones. Diet with Se could be beneficial in the treatment of diseases correlated with considerable oxidative stress, particularly parasitoses.

Effect of methanolic extract of Balanites aegyptiaca fruits on enteral and parenteral stages of Trichinella spiralis in rats

There is a considerable interest in developing new anthelmintic drugs including those from medicinal plants due to increasing evidence of parasitic resistance against present anthelmintic drugs and decreasing activity against encapsulated larval stages of parasites. This study was carried out to assess, for the first time, the effectiveness of methanolic extract of Balanites aegyptiaca (BAE) fruits against different stages (pre-adult, migrating larvae, and encysted larvae) of Trichinella spiralis in rats compared with commonly used anthelmintic albendazole. Oral administration of BAE at a dose of 1,000 mg/kg b.wt. for five successive days throughout the parasite life cycle led to a marked reduction of migrating and encysted larval rate by 81.7% and 61.7%, respectively, in the muscular tissue. This treatment was less effective against adults in the gut (47.8%). Albendazole treatment at a dose of 10 mg/kg b.wt. for five successive days resulted in a marked eradication of T. spiralis adult worms (94.4%) and less reduction of migrating and encysted larval infections of skeletal muscles (62.2% and 26.4%, respectively). BAE-treated groups showed marked decreases in serum-glucose levels, triglyceride concentrations, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), creatinine phosphokinase (CPK) activities, and lipid peroxide products (malondialdehyde, MDA) as well as an increase in glutathione level in both serum and muscular tissue compared to albendazole-treated- and infected-untreated groups. This result was confirmed by few numbers of living- and dead-encysted larvae and less destruction of the diaphragm and skeletal muscle tissues in BAE-treated groups compared to other treated groups. It can be concluded that the methanolic extract of B. aegyptiaca fruits has high effectiveness against parenteral stages of T. spiralis than albendazole. Albendazole is more effective against enteral stage of T. spiralis than the extract.

Comparison of the effects of Artemisia vulgaris and Artemisia absinthium growing in western Anatolia against trichinellosis (Trichinella spiralis) in rats

Trichinellosis often causing diarrhea and more rarely fever, periorbital edema and myositis in human, is commonly treated with benzimidazole derivatives. The Artemisia genus has been found to be effective against a variety of parasites. In the present study, the efficacy against trichinellosis (Trichinella spiralis) of Artemisia vulgaris and Artemisia absinthium was examined for the first time in rats. The results of trichinoscopy and artificial digestion, during the enteral (adult) phase of the illness show that 300 mg/kg doses of methanol extracts of the aerial parts of A. vulgaris and A. absinthium reduced the larval rate by 75.6% and 63.5% in tongue, 53.4% and 37.7% in diaphragm, 67.8% and 46.2% in quadriceps, and 66.7% and 60.5% in biceps-triceps muscles of rats, respectively. Furthermore, during the parenteral (encapsulated larvae) phase, 600 mg/kg doses of A. vulgaris and A. absinthium extracts decreased the larval rate by 66.4% and 59.9% in tongue, 57.4% and 50.0% in diaphragm, 47.6% and 43.7% in quadriceps, 60.2% and 46.4% in biceps-triceps muscles of rats, respectively. Analysis of antibody also showed that A. vulgaris significantly reduced the antibody response (P<0.05) during the enteral and parenteral phases. Thus, the results of the present study revealed that A. vulgaris could be an alternative drug against trichinellosis.

Evaluation of effects of albendazole on the kinetics of cytosolic glutathione transferase in skeletal muscles during experimental trichinellosis in mice

In this study, the effect of trichinellosis as well as the effect of albendazole treatment on the kinetics of substrate saturation of cytosolic glutathione transferase (GST) in the skeletal muscles from infected mice was examined because the idea of multifunctional mode of action of anthelmintic drugs was considered. Our results pointed out to the influence of trichinellosis and albendazole treatment on the quaternary structure of GST in mouse muscles. A double reciprocal plot of GST saturation in control mice was biphasic with apparent low and high K (m) values equal to 0.54 and 1.0 mM, respectively. Infection with Trichinella spiralis in the third week postinfection caused a 2.3-fold increase in the high K (m) value and at the same time a 2.8-fold decrease in the low K (m). In the sixth week postinfection, the high K (m) value was unchanged, but the low K (m) value increased 2.3 times. Calculated from the double reciprocal plot of GST substrate saturation in muscles from infected and treated mice (measured in the third week postinfection only), the high K (m) value increased 1.4 times relative to the respective controls. The normal substrate saturation plot of GST in treated mice has a clearly "double sigmoid" character. Our results suggest that despite the complicated character of the GST saturation curve, albendazole seems to act as an allosteric activator for cytosolic GST in infected mouse muscles.

Fasciola hepatica: Effects on the antioxidative properties and lipid peroxidation of rat serum

Fasciola hepatica infection is accompanied by increased formation of reactive oxygen species. The aim of this study was to analyze antioxidative properties of rat serum in the course of fasciolosis. Wistar rats were infected per os with 30 metacercariae of F. hepatica. Activities of antioxidant enzymes and concentrations of non-enzymatic antioxidants in serum were determined at 4, 7, and 10 weeks post-infection (wpi). Activity of superoxide dismutase (Cu, Zn-SOD) significantly decreased (by 35% during the migratory phase, by 40 and 23% at 7 and 10 wpi, respectively), while glutathione reductase activity significantly increased (by 62, 65, and 41%, at 4, 7, and 10 wpi, respectively). No significant changes were found in the activity of glutathione peroxidase. Significant decreases in concentrations of reduced glutathione, vitamins C, E, and A were observed, particularly during the migratory phase of fasciolosis (at 4 wpi). These changes were accompanied by enhancement of lipid peroxidation processes as evidenced by increased levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE). Concentrations of MDA and 4-HNE at 4 wpi increased by 38% and by 59%. MDA increased by 51% at 7 wpi and by 79% at 10 wpi, while 4-HNE increased by 87 and 118%, respectively. The results indicate that fasciolosis is associated with enhanced oxidative reactions and reduced antioxidant defense capability of rat serum.

Changes in the level of antioxidants in the blood from mice infected with Trichinella spiralis

The biological reaction caused by oxygen-derived free radicals at the molecular and cellular levels involves many different biochemical components which can be directly damaged by oxidizing radicals. As such a reaction may lead to pathological processes, defence mechanisms have evolved to limit the rate of free radical production. These mechanisms employ low-molecular-weight non-enzymatic antioxidants and antioxidant enzymes which are inducible by oxidant stress. In this study, the activity of two antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (EC 1.15.1.1) and glutathione peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.9), and the level of non-enzymatic antioxidants (total antioxidant status) in the blood from mice infected with Trichinella spiralis was examined. We observed a statistically significant, up to above twofold increase (relative to the control value in uninfected mice) in the level of both enzymes as well as in the total antioxidant status. An intensification of antioxidant processes during trichinellosis could be related to the presence of T. spiralis larvae, which may induce phagocytes to generate free radicals. Our research shows that the maximum growth in antioxidant activity in the blood appears during the period of the greatest muscle damage caused by T. spiralis infection at 3-7 weeks post-infection.