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El-Ashkar AM, Mahmoud S, Sabry H, Guirguis N, El Komi W, Ali E, Abu Shousha T, Abdelmksoud HF. Nitazoxanide, Ivermectin, and Artemether effects against cryptosporidiosis in diabetic mice: parasitological, histopathological, and chemical studies. J Parasit Dis 2022; 46:1070-1079. [PMID: 36092469 PMCID: PMC9451122 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-022-01527-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Human cryptosporidiosis is one of the most significant causes of water borne epidemics of diarrhea worldwide. It is extremely important in immunocompromised hosts and malnourished children as it could cause severe life-threatening diarrhea. Despite the global burden of the disease, there are only few available therapies against cryptosporidiosis. Diabetes mellitus is a common metabolic disorder that impair both the innate and adaptive immune responses of the patient. This study aimed to test the effect of Nitazoxanide, Ivermectin, and Artemether against cryptosporidiosis in diabetic mice. Sixty white albino mice were categorized into 6 groups; 10 mice each: GI: normal non-infected non-treated (healthy- control), GII-GVI (diabetic groups), GII: non-infected non treated (diabetic control), GIII: infected non treated (infected control), GIV: infected and treated with Nitazoxanide (NTZ), GV: infected and treated with Ivermectin (IVC), GVI: infected and treated with Artemether (ART). Parasitological, histopathological, and chemical examinations were done to evaluate the effect of NTZ, IVC, and ART against cryptosporidiosis in diabetic mice. Parasitological examination revealed maximum reduction of oocyst shedding in GVI, while histopathological examination showed the least pathologic changes in GV with mild vascular wall fibrosis and moderate lymphocytic infiltration of islets of Langerhans. Measurement of blood glucose level showed the best results with GIV. Nitazoxanide is effective against cryptosporidiosis in diabetic patients with minimal hyperglycemia, Artemether is especially effective in reducing the oocyst shedding in stool, whereas Ivermectin is associated with the least pathological changes in pancreatic islets of Langerhans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayman M. El-Ashkar
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Soheir Mahmoud
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Giza, Egypt
| | - Hoda Sabry
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Giza, Egypt
| | - Nevine Guirguis
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Giza, Egypt
| | - Wafaa El Komi
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Giza, Egypt
| | - Eman Ali
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Giza, Egypt
| | - Tarek Abu Shousha
- Department of Pathology, Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Giza, Egypt
| | - Hagar F. Abdelmksoud
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Theodor Bilharz Research Institute, Giza, Egypt
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Natural Compounds from the Marine Brown Alga Caulocystis cephalornithos with Potent In Vitro-Activity against the Parasitic Nematode Haemonchus contortus. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9070550. [PMID: 32659883 PMCID: PMC7400099 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9070550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Eight secondary metabolites (1 to 8) were isolated from a marine sponge, a marine alga and three terrestrial plants collected in Australia and subsequently chemically characterised. Here, these natural product-derived compounds were screened for in vitro-anthelmintic activity against the larvae and adult stages of Haemonchus contortus (barber's pole worm)-a highly pathogenic parasitic nematode of ruminants. Using an optimised, whole-organism screening system, compounds were tested on exsheathed third-stage larvae (xL3s) and fourth-stage larvae (L4s). Anthelmintic activity was initially evaluated on these stages based on the inhibition of motility, development and/or changes in morphology (phenotype). We identified two compounds, 6-undecylsalicylic acid (3) and 6-tridecylsalicylic acid (4) isolated from the marine brown alga, Caulocystis cephalornithos, with inhibitory effects on xL3 and L4 motility and larval development, and the induction of a "skinny-straight" phenotype. Subsequent testing showed that these two compounds had an acute nematocidal effect (within 1-12 h) on adult males and females of H. contortus. Ultrastructural analysis of adult worms treated with compound 4 revealed significant damage to subcuticular musculature and associated tissues and cellular organelles including mitochondria. In conclusion, the present study has discovered two algal compounds possessing acute anthelmintic effects and with potential for hit-to-lead progression. Future work should focus on undertaking a structure-activity relationship study and on elucidating the mode(s) of action of optimised compounds.
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Zhu H, Jiang H, Yu J, Song X, Zhao H, Li J, Geng Y, Wang D. Application of coordination agent in high‐speed counter‐current chromatography for the preparative separation and isolation ginkgolic acids from the sarcotesta of
Ginkgo biloba
L. J Sep Sci 2018; 41:4379-4386. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201800637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Heng Zhu
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality ControlShandong Analysis and Test CenterQilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences) Jinan P. R. China
| | - Hailong Jiang
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality ControlShandong Analysis and Test CenterQilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences) Jinan P. R. China
| | - Jinqian Yu
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality ControlShandong Analysis and Test CenterQilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences) Jinan P. R. China
| | - Xiangyun Song
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality ControlShandong Analysis and Test CenterQilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences) Jinan P. R. China
| | - Hengqiang Zhao
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality ControlShandong Analysis and Test CenterQilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences) Jinan P. R. China
| | - Jingchao Li
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality ControlShandong Analysis and Test CenterQilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences) Jinan P. R. China
| | - Yanling Geng
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality ControlShandong Analysis and Test CenterQilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences) Jinan P. R. China
| | - Daijie Wang
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality ControlShandong Analysis and Test CenterQilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences) Jinan P. R. China
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Yan H, Chen L, Bai A, Zhao H, Kong M, Cui L. Preparative Separation of Ginkgolic Acids from the Sarcotesta of Ginkgo biloba L. by β-Cyclodextrin Clathration Coupled with pH-Zone-Refining and Recycling Countercurrent Chromatography. Ind Eng Chem Res 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.8b04167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Huijiao Yan
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality Control, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, Shandong 250014, People’s Republic of China
| | - Long Chen
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality Control, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, Shandong 250014, People’s Republic of China
| | - Aiying Bai
- Jinan Center for Disease Control And Prevention, Jinan, Shandong 250001, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hengqiang Zhao
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality Control, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, Shandong 250014, People’s Republic of China
| | - Meng Kong
- College of Life Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, Shandong 250014, People’s Republic of China
| | - Li Cui
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality Control, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, Shandong 250014, People’s Republic of China
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Wang D, Song X, Yan H, Guo M, Fu R, Jiang H, Zhu H, Wang X. Development of online-storage inner-recycling counter-current chromatography for the preparative separation of complex components of alkylphenols from sarcotesta of Ginkgo biloba L. RSC Adv 2018; 8:34321-34330. [PMID: 35548654 PMCID: PMC9086910 DOI: 10.1039/c8ra05618h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
High-speed counter-current chromatography (HSCCC) is becoming an effective and non-absorptive separation method from natural products. Due to the insufficient separation efficiency, it is challenging to separate complex components, especially for compounds with similar K D values. In this study, a novel and effective online-storage inner-recycling CCC method was used to separate alkylphenols from the sarcotesta of Ginkgo biloba L. A two-phase solvent system of n-heptane/ethyl acetate/methanol/acetic acid (5 : 4 : 1 : 1, v/v) was used for HSCCC separation of 500 mg crude extracts. After the inner-recycling of two fractions coupled with pre-HPLC, five main ginkgolic acids (C13:0, C15:1, C17:2, C15:1, C17:1) coupled with bilobol (C15:1) and a mixture were obtained from a non-stop separation using a storage loop and two six-way valves. This novel method was also evaluated and predicted by formula derivation. This method could be an effective, rapid, and simple approach to separate alkylphenols from the sarcotesta of G. biloba.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daijie Wang
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality Control, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences) Jinan Shandong 250014 People's Republic of China +86-0531-8260-5304
| | - Xiangyun Song
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality Control, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences) Jinan Shandong 250014 People's Republic of China +86-0531-8260-5304
| | - Huijiao Yan
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality Control, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences) Jinan Shandong 250014 People's Republic of China +86-0531-8260-5304
| | - Mengmeng Guo
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University Taian Shandong 271018 People's Republic of China
| | - Ruiming Fu
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality Control, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences) Jinan Shandong 250014 People's Republic of China +86-0531-8260-5304
| | - Hailong Jiang
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality Control, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences) Jinan Shandong 250014 People's Republic of China +86-0531-8260-5304
| | - Heng Zhu
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality Control, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences) Jinan Shandong 250014 People's Republic of China +86-0531-8260-5304
| | - Xiao Wang
- Key Laboratory of TCM Quality Control, Shandong Analysis and Test Center, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences) Jinan Shandong 250014 People's Republic of China +86-0531-8260-5304
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Valigurova A, Peckova R, Dolezal K, Sak B, Kvetonova D, Kvac M, Nurcahyo W, Foitova I. Limitations in the screening of potentially anti-cryptosporidial agents using laboratory rodents with gastric cryptosporidiosis. Folia Parasitol (Praha) 2018; 65. [PMID: 30152784 DOI: 10.14411/fp.2018.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of cryptosporidiosis, a zoonotic disease of the gastrointestinal and respiratory tract caused by Cryptosporidium Tyzzer, 1907, triggered numerous screening studies of various compounds for potential anti-cryptosporidial activity, the majority of which proved ineffective. Extracts of Indonesian plants, Piper betle and Diospyros sumatrana, were tested for potential anti-cryptosporidial activity using Mastomys coucha (Smith), experimentally inoculated with Cryptosporidium proliferans Kváč, Havrdová, Hlásková, Daňková, Kanděra, Ježková, Vítovec, Sak, Ortega, Xiao, Modrý, Chelladurai, Prantlová et McEvoy, 2016. None of the plant extracts tested showed significant activity against cryptosporidia; however, the results indicate that the following issues should be addressed in similar experimental studies. The monitoring of oocyst shedding during the entire experimental trial, supplemented with histological examination of affected gastric tissue at the time of treatment termination, revealed that similar studies are generally unreliable if evaluations of drug efficacy are based exclusively on oocyst shedding. Moreover, the reduction of oocyst shedding did not guarantee the eradication of cryptosporidia in treated individuals. For treatment trials performed on experimentally inoculated laboratory rodents, only animals in the advanced phase of cryptosporidiosis should be used for the correct interpretation of pathological alterations observed in affected tissue. All the solvents used (methanol, methanol-tetrahydrofuran and dimethylsulfoxid) were shown to be suitable for these studies, i.e. they did not exhibit negative effects on the subjects. The halofuginone lactate, routinely administered in intestinal cryptosporidiosis in calves, was shown to be ineffective against gastric cryptosporidiosis in mice caused by C. proliferans. In contrast, the control application of extract Arabidopsis thaliana, from which we had expected a neutral effect, turned out to have some positive impact on affected gastric tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Valigurova
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Radka Peckova
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Dolezal
- Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics & Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Centre of the Region Hana for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacky University, and Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of Czech Republic, Olomouc-Holice, Czech Republic
| | - Bohumil Sak
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Dana Kvetonova
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Kvac
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic.,Department of Animal Husbandry Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Wisnu Nurcahyo
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - Ivona Foitova
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.,Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
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Qian Y, Zhu Z, Duan JA, Guo S, Shang E, Tao J, Su S, Guo J. Simultaneous quantification and semi-quantification of ginkgolic acids and their metabolites in rat plasma by UHPLC-LTQ-Orbitrap-MS and its application to pharmacokinetics study. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2016; 1041-1042:85-93. [PMID: 28013179 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2016.11.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Revised: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A highly sensitive method using ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled with linear ion trap-Orbitrap tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-LTQ-Orbitrap-MS) has been developed and validated for the simultaneous identification and quantification of ginkgolic acids and semi-quantification of their metabolites in rat plasma. For the five selected ginkgolic acids, the method was found to be with good linearities (r>0.9991), good intra- and inter-day precisions (RSD<15%), and good accuracies (RE, from -10.33% to 4.92%) as well. Extraction recoveries, matrix effects and stabilities for rat plasm samples were within the required limits. The validated method was successfully applied to investigate the pharmacokinetics of the five ginkgolic acids in rat plasma after oral administration of 3 dosage groups (900mg/kg, 300mg/kg and 100mg/kg). Meanwhile, six metabolites of GA (15:1) and GA (17:1) were identified by comparison of MS data with reported values. The results of validation in terms of linear ranges, precisions and stabilities were established for semi-quantification of metabolites. The curves of relative changes of these metabolites during the metabolic process were constructed by plotting the peak area ratios of metabolites to salicylic acid (internal standard, IS), respectively. Double peaks were observed in all 3 dose groups. Different type of metabolites and different dosage of each metabolite both resulted in different Tmax.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiyun Qian
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resource Industrializ-ation, and National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, China
| | - Zhenhua Zhu
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resource Industrializ-ation, and National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, China
| | - Jin-Ao Duan
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resource Industrializ-ation, and National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, China.
| | - Sheng Guo
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resource Industrializ-ation, and National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, China
| | - Erxin Shang
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resource Industrializ-ation, and National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, China
| | - Jinhua Tao
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resource Industrializ-ation, and National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, China; School of Pharmacy, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Shulan Su
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resource Industrializ-ation, and National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, China
| | - Jianming Guo
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Chinese Medicinal Resource Industrializ-ation, and National and Local Collaborative Engineering Center of Chinese Medicinal Resources Industrialization and Formulae Innovative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, China
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The Lesser Egyptian Gerbil (Gerbillus gerbillus) is a suitable host for the long-term propagation of Cryptosporidium andersoni. Exp Parasitol 2013; 134:438-42. [PMID: 23644354 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2013.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2012] [Revised: 04/08/2013] [Accepted: 04/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We describe the course of infection of Cryptosporidium andersoni LI03, originally isolated from cattle, in outbred Gerbillus gerbillus (Lesser Egyptian Gerbil), Meriones unguiculatus (Mongolian gerbil), and Meriones tristrami (Tristram's jird). While both Meriones spp. partially cleared the infection and shed a low number of oocysts (less than 15,000 oocysts per gram (OPG)), chronic infection with a mean infection intensity reaching 200,000 OPG was observed in G. gerbillus. These data suggest that G. gerbillus can be used as a laboratory model for the long-term maintenance and study of C. andersoni without the need for host immunosuppression.
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Effects of the Chinese medicine matrine on experimental C. parvum infection in BALB/c mice and MDBK cells. Parasitol Res 2012; 111:1827-32. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-012-3030-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2012] [Accepted: 06/27/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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In vitro determination of anticryptosporidial activity of phytogenic extracts and compounds. Parasitol Res 2012; 111:231-40. [PMID: 22278729 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-012-2824-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2011] [Accepted: 01/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Cryptosporidiosis caused by Cryptosporidium spp. is an important diarrhoeal disease observed in farm animals and humans, especially in young or immunocompromised individuals. A novel cell culture assay for testing extracts and pure compounds against Cryptosporidium parvum in 96-well microplate format was established and evaluated. It is based on previously described indirect fluorescent antibody techniques and was optimised for higher sample throughput. Rapid assessment of minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) was done by checking each well microscopically for the presence or absence of parasite stages. As a novelty, parasite development was quantified by enumeration of clusters of secondary infection (CSI), which typically appeared upon infection with a distinct parasite inoculum after a defined incubation time. Host cell (HCT-8) viability was measured by an integrated non-destructive water-soluble tetrazolium salt assay (WST-1), which facilitated discrimination of antiparasitic activity from possible cytotoxic effects of a test compound against the host cells. Host cell viability was regarded unimpaired when cultures had 75% or more viability when compared to control cultures without test substance. In this study, a maximum density of distinguishable CSI was obtained when cultures were infected with 2.5 × 10(3) oocysts and incubated for 48 h. The applicable inoculum has to be optimised for each batch of oocysts and before each experimental series. Parasite development was inhibited completely by monensin at 134 nM and silymarin at 50 mg/mL. These concentrations were non-toxic to the host cells and comparable to literature data. The percentages of parasite inhibition were determined for monensin and a 50% inhibitory concentration (IC(50)) of 36.6 nM (27.4-45.5) and a 90% inhibitory concentration of 65.9 nM (54.8-90.2) were calculated. The introduced assay is economic because relatively low parasite numbers may be used. If MICs are determined, evaluation is fast, as each well is viewed only briefly under the fluorescence microscope for presence or absence of CSI. Furthermore it is highly critical because only full parasite inhibition is assessed. Counting of CSI is more laborious and time-consuming, but it allows calculation of parasite inhibition rates and parameters like the half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC(50)). This assay shall be used to assess anticryptosporidial activities of various plant waste materials and by-products from the food and the pharmaceutical industries in the course of the EU project SAFEWASTES. Comparison with in vivo models should be performed to further corroborate the results. Automated evaluation by flow cytometry might facilitate higher sample throughput and reduce operator bias.
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