In vivo assessment of the antimalarial and spleen-protective activities of the Saudi propolis methanolic extract

Bee-Inspired Healing: Apitherapy in Veterinary Medicine for Maintenance and Improvement Animal Health and Well-Being

This review aims to present current knowledge on the effects of honey bee products on animals based on in vivo studies, focusing on their application in clinical veterinary practice. Honey's best-proven effectiveness is in treating wounds, including those infected with antibiotic-resistant microorganisms, as evidenced in horses, cats, dogs, mice, and rats. Propolis manifested a healing effect in numerous inflammatory and painful conditions in mice, rats, dogs, and pigs and also helped in oncological cases in mice and rats. Bee venom is best known for its effectiveness in treating neuropathy and arthritis, as shown in dogs, mice, and rats. Besides, bee venom improved reproductive performance, immune response, and general health in rabbits, chickens, and pigs. Pollen was effective in stimulating growth and improving intestinal microflora in chickens. Royal jelly might be used in the management of animal reproduction due to its efficiency in improving fertility, as shown in rats, rabbits, and mice. Drone larvae are primarily valued for their androgenic effects and stimulation of reproductive function, as evidenced in sheep, chickens, pigs, and rats. Further research is warranted to determine the dose and method of application of honey bee products in animals.

Parasitological, Molecular, and Histopathological Investigation of the Potential Activity of Propolis and Wheat Germ Oil against Acute Toxoplasmosis in Mice

Toxoplasmosis is one of the most common parasitic zoonoses that affects all vertebrates. The drugs most commonly used against toxoplasmosis have many side effects, making the development of new antiparasitic drugs a big challenge. The present study evaluated the therapeutic effectiveness of novel herbal treatments, including propolis and wheat germ oil (WGO), against acute toxoplasmosis. A total of 50 albino mice were divided into five groups: group 1 (G1) (non-infected and non-treated); group 2 (G2) (infected without treatment); group 3 (G3) (treated with propolis); group 4 (G4) (treated with WGO); group 5 (G5) (treated with a combination of propolis and WGO). The effects of the herbal substances on different organs, mainly liver, spleen, and lungs, were investigated using parasitological, molecular, and histopathological examinations. The results of parasitological examination demonstrated statistically significant (p < 0.05) differences in the parasitic load between treated groups (G3, G4, and G5) compared to the control positive group (G2). These differences were represented by a significant reduction in the parasite load in stained tissue smears from the liver obtained from the animals treated with propolis (G3) compared to the parasite load in the positive control group. Similarly, animals (G4) treated with WGO exhibited a significant reduction in the parasite load versus the positive control group, while the lowest parasite load was found in G5, treated with propolis and WGO. Quantification of the parasite burden through molecular methods (PCR) revealed similar findings represented by reduction in the parasite burden in all treated groups with WGO and propolis as compared to the control group. Importantly, these previous parasitological and molecular findings were accompanied by a marked improvement in the histopathological picture of the liver, spleen, and lungs. In conclusion, propolis and WGO showed a good combination of therapeutic efficacy against acute toxoplasmosis.

Recent Update on the Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Propolis

In recent years, research has demonstrated the efficacy propolis as a potential raw material for pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals. There is limited report detailing the mechanisms of action of propolis and its bioactive compounds in relation to their anti-inflammatory properties. Thus, the aim of the present review is to examine the latest experimental evidence (2017-2022) regarding the anti-inflammatory properties of propolis. A systematic scoping review methodology was implemented. After applying the exclusion criteria, a total of 166 research publications were identified and retrieved from Scopus, Web of Science, and Pubmed. Several key themes related to the anti-inflammatory properties of propolis were subsequently identified, namely in relation to cancers, oral health, metabolic syndrome, organ toxicity and inflammation, immune system, wound healing, and pathogenic infections. Based on the latest experimental evidence, propolis is demonstrated to possess various mechanisms of action in modulating inflammation towards the regulatory balance and anti-inflammatory environment. In general, we summarize that propolis acts as an anti-inflammatory substance by inhibiting and downregulating TLR4, MyD88, IRAK4, TRIF, NLRP inflammasomes, NF-κB, and their associated pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ, and TNF-α. Propolis also reduces the migration of immune cells such as macrophages and neutrophils, possibly by downregulating the chemokines CXCL9 and CXCL10.

Antiparasitic Properties of Propolis Extracts and Their Compounds

Propolis is a bee product that has been used in medicine since ancient times. Although its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, antitumor, and immunomodulatory activities have been investigated, its anti-parasitic properties remain poorly explored, especially regarding helminths. This review surveys the results obtained with propolis around the world against human parasites. Regarding protozoa, studies carried out with the protozoa Trypanosoma spp. and Leishmania spp. have demonstrated promising results in vitro and in vivo. However, there are fewer studies for Plasmodium spp., the etiological agent of malaria and less so for helminths, particularly for Fasciola spp. and Schistosoma spp. Despite the favorable in vitro results with propolis, helminth assays need to be further investigated. However, propolis has shown itself to be an excellent natural product for parasitology, thus opening new paths and approaches in its activity against protozoa and helminths.

Phytochemical, Antiplasmodial, Cytotoxic and Antimicrobial Evaluation of a Southeast Brazilian Brown Propolis Produced by Apis mellifera Bees

Seven phenolic compounds (ferulic acid, caffeic acid, 4-methoxycinnamic acid, 3,4-dimethoxycinnamic acid, 3-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde, 3-methoxy-4-hydroxypropiophenone and 1-O,2-O-digalloyl-6-O-trans-p-coumaroyl-β-D-glucopyranoside), a flavanonol (7-O-methylaromadendrin), two lignans (pinoresinol and matairesinol) and six diterpenic acids/alcohol (19-acetoxy-13-hydroxyabda-8(17),14-diene, totarol, 7-oxodehydroabietic acid, dehydroabietic acid, communic acid and isopimaric acid) were isolated from the hydroalcoholic extract of a Brazilian Brown Propolis and characterized by NMR spectral data analysis. The volatile fraction of brown propolis was characterized by CG-MS, composed mainly of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, being the major α-pinene (18.4 %) and β-pinene (10.3 %). This propolis chemical profile indicates that Pinus spp., Eucalyptus spp. and Araucaria angustifolia might be its primary plants source. The brown propolis displayed significant activity against Plasmodium falciparum D6 and W2 strains with IC₅₀ of 5.3 and 9.7 μg/mL, respectively. The volatile fraction was also active with IC₅₀ of 22.5 and 41.8 μg/mL, respectively. Among the compounds, 1-O,2-O-digalloyl-6-O-trans-p-coumaroyl-β-D-glucopyranoside showed IC₅₀ of 3.1 and 1.0 μg/mL against D6 and W2 strains, respectively, while communic acid showed an IC₅₀ of 4.0 μg/mL against W2 strain. Cytotoxicity was determined on four tumor cell lines (SK-MEL, KB, BT-549, and SK-OV-3) and two normal renal cell lines (LLC-PK1 and VERO). Matairesinol, 7-O-methylaromadendrin, and isopimaric acid showed an IC₅₀ range of 1.8-0.78 μg/mL, 7.3-100 μg/mL, and 17-18 μg/mL, respectively, against the tumor cell lines but they were not cytotoxic against normal cell lines. The crude extract of brown propolis displayed antimicrobial activity against C. neoformans, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and P. aeruginosa at 29.9 μg/mL, 178.9 μg/mL, and 160.7 μg/mL, respectively. The volatile fraction inhibited the growth of C. neoformans at 53.0 μg/mL. The compounds 3-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde, 3-methoxy-4-hydroxypropiophenone and 7-oxodehydroabietic acid were active against C. neoformans, and caffeic and communic acids were active against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.

Antiviral, Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antiparasitic Properties of Propolis: A Review

Propolis is a complex phytocompound made from resinous and balsamic material harvested by bees from flowers, branches, pollen, and tree exudates. Humans have used propolis therapeutically for centuries. The aim of this article is to provide comprehensive review of the antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, and antiparasitic properties of propolis. The mechanisms of action of propolis are discussed. There are two distinct impacts with regards to antimicrobial and anti-parasitic properties of propolis, on the pathogens and on the host. With regards to the pathogens, propolis acts by disrupting the ability of the pathogens to invade the host cells by forming a physical barrier and inhibiting enzymes and proteins needed for invasion into the host cells. Propolis also inhibits the replication process of the pathogens. Moreover, propolis inhibits the metabolic processes of the pathogens by disrupting cellular organelles and components responsible for energy production. With regard to the host, propolis functions as an immunomodulator. It upregulates the innate immunity and modulates the inflammatory signaling pathways. Propolis also helps maintain the host's cellular antioxidant status. More importantly, a small number of human clinical trials have demonstrated the efficacy and the safety of propolis as an adjuvant therapy for pathogenic infections.

Effects of Propolis on Infectious Diseases of Medical Relevance

Infectious diseases are a significant problem affecting the public health and economic stability of societies all over the world. Treatment is available for most of these diseases; however, many pathogens have developed resistance to drugs, necessitating the development of new therapies with chemical agents, which can have serious side effects and high toxicity. In addition, the severity and aggressiveness of emerging and re-emerging diseases, such as pandemics caused by viral agents, have led to the priority of investigating new therapies to complement the treatment of different infectious diseases. Alternative and complementary medicine is widely used throughout the world due to its low cost and easy access and has been shown to provide a wide repertoire of options for the treatment of various conditions. In this work, we address the relevance of the effects of propolis on the causal pathogens of the main infectious diseases with medical relevance; the existing compiled information shows that propolis has effects on Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, fungi, protozoan parasites and helminths, and viruses; however, challenges remain, such as the assessment of their effects in clinical studies for adequate and safe use.

Promising Anti-Protozoan Activities of Propolis (Bee Glue) as Natural Product: A Review

PURPOSE

Propolis (bee glue) is a resinous mixture of different plant exudates that possesses a wide range of biological and antimicrobial activities and has been used as a food supplement and in complementary medicine for centuries. Some researchers have proposed that propolis could be a potential curative compound against microbial agents such as protozoan parasitic infections by different and occasionally unknown mechanisms due to the immunoregulatory function and antioxidant capacity of this natural product.

METHODS

In this review, we concentrate on in vitro and in vivo anti-protozoan activities of propolis extracts/fractions in the published literature.

RESULTS

In Leishmania, propolis inhibits the proliferation of promastigotes and produces an anti-inflammatory effect via the inhibition of nitric oxide (NO) production. In addition, it increases macrophage activation, TLR-2, TNF-α, IL-4, IL-17 production, and downregulation of IL-12. In Plasmodium and Trypanosoma, propolis inhibits the parasitemia, improving anemia and increasing the IFN-γ, TNF-α, and GM-CSF cytokines levels, most likely due to its strong immunomodulatory activity. Moreover, propolis extract arrests proliferation of T. cruzi, because it has aromatic acids and flavonoids. In toxoplasmosis, propolis increases the specific IgM and IgG titers via decreasing the serum IFN-γ, IL-1, and IL-6 cytokines levels in the rats infected with T. gondii. In Cryptosporidium and Giardia, it decreases oocysts shedding due to phytochemical constituents, particularly phenolic compounds, and increases the number of goblet cells. Propolis inhibits the growth of Blastocystis, possibly by apoptotic mechanisms like metronidazole. Unfortunately, the mechanism action of propolis' anti-Trichomonas and anti-Acanthamoeba is not well-known yet.

CONCLUSION

Reviewing the related literature could highlight promising antimicrobial activities of propolis against intracellular and extracellular protozoan parasites; this could shed light on the exploration of more effective drugs for the treatment of protozoan parasitic infections in the near future.

Induction of liver fibrosis by CCl4 mediates pathological alterations in the spleen and lymph nodes: The potential therapeutic role of propolis

In an animal models, carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) is a carcinogenic agent that causes liver fibrosis. The current study aims to investigate whether induction in liver-fibrosis by CCl4 in the mouse model could promote the initiation of fibrosis in lymph node and spleen due to sustained increase of inflammatory signals and also aimed to clarify the protective therapeutic effects of propolis. The male mice (BALB/c) were categorized into three experimental sets and each group involved 15 mice. Control group falls into first group; group-II and group-III were injected with CCl4 to induce liver-fibrosis and oral supplementation with propolis was provided in group-III for 4-weeks. A major improvement with hepatic collagen and α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) production was aligned with the activation of liver fibrosis from CCl4. Mice treated with CCl4 exhibited collagen deposition towards liver sections, pathological alterations in spleen and lymph node architectures, and a significantly increase the circulation of both T&B cells in secondary lymphoid organs. Mechanically, the secondary lymphoid organs treated with CCl4 in mice exposed a positive growth in α-SMA and collagen expression, increased in proinflammatory cytokine levels and a significant increase in TGF-β, NO and ROS levels. A manifest intensification in the expression of Nrf2, COX-2, and eNOS and upregulation of ASK1 and P38 phosphorylation. Interestingly, addition of propolis-treated CCl4 mice, substantially suppressed deposition of liver collagen, repealed inflammatory signals and resorted CCl4-mediated alterations in signaling cascades, thereby repairing the architectures of the secondary lymphoid organs. Our findings revealed benefits of propolis against fibrotic complications and enhancing secondary lymphoid organ architecture.

Green propolis increases myeloid suppressor cells and CD4+Foxp3+ cells and reduces Th2 inflammation in the lungs after allergen exposure

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Propolis is a natural product produced by honeybees used as a medicine at least to 300 BC. In the last decades, several studies showed biological and pharmacological properties of propolis, witch scientifically explains the empirical use for centuries. The anti-inflammatory activity of propolis with the purpose to reduce Th2 inflammation has been evaluated in allergic asthma. However, it remains to be determined how propolis negatively regulates the immune response after allergen re-exposure.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We hypothesized that the anti-inflammatory activity of propolis is dependent on the induction of myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSC) and regulatory T cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

To assess this hypothesis, we used an ovalbumin-induced asthma model to evaluate the effect of EPP-AF® dry extract from Brazilian green propolis.

RESULTS

Propolis treatment decreased pulmonary inflammation and mucus production as well as eosinophils and IL-5 in the broncoalveolar lavage. Propolis enhanced also in vitro differentiation and in vivo frequency of lung MDSC and CD4⁺Foxp3⁺ regulatory T cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Together these results confirm the immunomodulatory potential of propolis during sensitization and challenge with allergen. In addition, the collecting findings show, for the first time, that propolis increases the frequency of MDSC and CD4⁺Foxp3⁺ regulatory T cells in the lungs, and suggest that it could be use as target for development of new immunotherapy or adjuvant immunotherapy for asthma.