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Chen S, Xing L, Xie Z, Zhao M, Yu H, Gan J, Zhao H, Ma Z, Li H. Single-cell transcriptomic reveals a cell atlas and diversity of chicken amygdala responded to social hierarchy. iScience 2024; 27:109880. [PMID: 38952686 PMCID: PMC11215297 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.109880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 07/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Amygdala serves as a highly cellular, heterogeneous brain region containing excitatory and inhibitory neurons and is involved in the dopamine and serotoninergic neuron systems. An increasing number of studies have revealed the underpinned mechanism mediating social hierarchy in mammal and vertebrate, however, there are rare studies conducted on how amygdala on social hierarchy in poultry. In this study, we conducted food competition tests and determined the social hierarchy of the rooster. We performed cross-species analysis with mammalian amygdala, and found that cell types of human and rhesus monkeys were more closely related and that of chickens were more distant. We identified 26 clusters and divided them into 10 main clusters, of which GABAergic and glutamatergic neurons were associated with social behaviors. In conclusion, our results provide to serve the developmental studies of the amygdala neuron system and new insights into the underpinned mechanism of social hierarchy in roosters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyu Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528250, China
| | - Limin Xing
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528250, China
| | - Zhijiang Xie
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528250, China
| | - Mengqiao Zhao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528250, China
| | - Hui Yu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528250, China
| | - Jiankang Gan
- Guangdong Tinoo’s FOODS Group Co., Ltd, Qingyuan 511500, China
| | - Haiquan Zhao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528250, China
| | - Zheng Ma
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528250, China
| | - Hua Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal Molecular Design and Precise Breeding of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, School of Life Science and Engineering, Foshan University, Foshan 528250, China
- Guangdong Tinoo’s FOODS Group Co., Ltd, Qingyuan 511500, China
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2
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Saglam-Metiner P, Yildirim E, Dincer C, Basak O, Yesil-Celiktas O. Humanized brain organoids-on-chip integrated with sensors for screening neuronal activity and neurotoxicity. Mikrochim Acta 2024; 191:71. [PMID: 38168828 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-023-06165-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
The complex structure and function of the human central nervous system that develops from the neural tube made in vitro modeling quite challenging until the discovery of brain organoids. Human-induced pluripotent stem cells-derived brain organoids offer recapitulation of the features of early human neurodevelopment in vitro, including the generation, proliferation, and differentiation into mature neurons and micro-macroglial cells, as well as the complex interactions among these diverse cell types of the developing brain. Recent advancements in brain organoids, microfluidic systems, real-time sensing technologies, and their cutting-edge integrated use provide excellent models and tools for emulation of fundamental neurodevelopmental processes, the pathology of neurological disorders, personalized transplantation therapy, and high-throughput neurotoxicity testing by bridging the gap between two-dimensional models and the complex three-dimensional environment in vivo. In this review, we summarize how bioengineering approaches are applied to mitigate the limitations of brain organoids for biomedical and clinical research. We further provide an extensive overview and future perspectives of the humanized brain organoids-on-chip platforms with integrated sensors toward brain organoid intelligence and biocomputing studies. Such approaches might pave the way for increasing approvable clinical applications by solving their current limitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pelin Saglam-Metiner
- Department of Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Division of Neuroscience, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ender Yildirim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey
- ODTÜ MEMS Center, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Can Dincer
- Department of Microsystems Engineering (IMTEK), University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
- FIT Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Onur Basak
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Division of Neuroscience, UMC Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ozlem Yesil-Celiktas
- Department of Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey.
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3
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Rantataro S, Parkkinen I, Airavaara M, Laurila T. Real-time selective detection of dopamine and serotonin at nanomolar concentration from complex in vitro systems. Biosens Bioelectron 2023; 241:115579. [PMID: 37690355 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2023.115579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 07/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical sensors provide means for real-time monitoring of neurotransmitter release events, which is a relatively easy process in simple electrolytes. However, this does not apply to in vitro environments. In cell culture media, competitively adsorbing molecules are present at concentrations up to 350 000-fold excess compared to the neurotransmitter-of-interest. Because detection of dopamine and serotonin requires direct adsorption of the analyte to electrode surface, a significant loss of sensitivity occurs when recording is performed in the in vitro environment. Despite these challenges, our single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) sensor was capable of selectively measuring dopamine and serotonin from cell culture medium at nanomolar concentration in real-time. A primary midbrain culture was used to prove excellent biocompatibility of our SWCNT electrodes, which is a necessity for brain-on-a-chip models. Most importantly, our sensor was able to electrochemically record spontaneous transient activity from dopaminergic cell culture without altering the culture conditions, which has not been possible earlier. Drug discovery and development requires high-throughput screening of in vitro models, being hindered by the challenges in non-invasive characterization of complex neuronal models such as organoids. Our neurotransmitter sensors could be used for real-time monitoring of complex neuronal models, providing an alternative tool for their characterization non-invasively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Rantataro
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Aalto University, Maarintie 8, Espoo, 02150, Finland.
| | - Ilmari Parkkinen
- Institute of Biotechnology, HiLife, University of Helsinki, Biocenter 2, Helsinki, 00014, Finland; Division of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari, 5E, Helsinki, 00014, Finland
| | - Mikko Airavaara
- Division of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari, 5E, Helsinki, 00014, Finland; Neuroscience Center, HiLife, University of Helsinki, Biomedicum 1, Haartmaninkatu 8, Helsinki, 00014, Finland
| | - Tomi Laurila
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Automation, Aalto University, Maarintie 8, Espoo, 02150, Finland; Department of Chemistry and Materials Science, Aalto University, Kemistintie 1, Espoo, 02150, Finland.
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4
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Hou Y, Yao H, Lin JM. Recent advancements in single-cell metabolic analysis for pharmacological research. J Pharm Anal 2023; 13:1102-1116. [PMID: 38024859 PMCID: PMC10658044 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2023.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 08/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cellular heterogeneity is crucial for understanding tissue biology and disease pathophysiology. Pharmacological research is being advanced by single-cell metabolic analysis, which offers a technique to identify variations in RNA, proteins, metabolites, and drug molecules in cells. In this review, the recent advancement of single-cell metabolic analysis techniques and their applications in drug metabolism and drug response are summarized. High-precision and controlled single-cell isolation and manipulation are provided by microfluidics-based methods, such as droplet microfluidics, microchamber, open microfluidic probe, and digital microfluidics. They are used in tandem with variety of detection techniques, including optical imaging, Raman spectroscopy, electrochemical detection, RNA sequencing, and mass spectrometry, to evaluate single-cell metabolic changes in response to drug administration. The advantages and disadvantages of different techniques are discussed along with the challenges and future directions for single-cell analysis. These techniques are employed in pharmaceutical analysis for studying drug response and resistance pathway, therapeutic targets discovery, and in vitro disease model evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Hou
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Hongren Yao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Jin-Ming Lin
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Microanalytical Methods and Instrumentation, Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Phosphorus Chemistry & Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
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5
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Toh HSY, Choo XY, Sun AX. Midbrain organoids-development and applications in Parkinson's disease. OXFORD OPEN NEUROSCIENCE 2023; 2:kvad009. [PMID: 38596240 PMCID: PMC10913847 DOI: 10.1093/oons/kvad009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
Human brain development is spatially and temporally complex. Insufficient access to human brain tissue and inadequacy of animal models has limited the study of brain development and neurodegenerative diseases. Recent advancements of brain organoid technology have created novel opportunities to model human-specific neurodevelopment and brain diseases. In this review, we discuss the use of brain organoids to model the midbrain and Parkinson's disease. We critically evaluate the extent of recapitulation of PD pathology by organoids and discuss areas of future development that may lead to the model to become a next-generation, personalized therapeutic strategy for PD and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilary S Y Toh
- Neuroscience & Behavioural Disorders Programme, Duke-NUS Medical School, 8 College Road, Singapore
| | - Xin Yi Choo
- Neuroscience & Behavioural Disorders Programme, Duke-NUS Medical School, 8 College Road, Singapore
| | - Alfred Xuyang Sun
- Neuroscience & Behavioural Disorders Programme, Duke-NUS Medical School, 8 College Road, Singapore
- National Neuroscience Institute, 11 Jln Tan Tock Seng, Singapore
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6
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Temple S. Advancing cell therapy for neurodegenerative diseases. Cell Stem Cell 2023; 30:512-529. [PMID: 37084729 PMCID: PMC10201979 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2023.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/23/2023]
Abstract
Cell-based therapies are being developed for various neurodegenerative diseases that affect the central nervous system (CNS). Concomitantly, the roles of individual cell types in neurodegenerative pathology are being uncovered by genetic and single-cell studies. With a greater understanding of cellular contributions to health and disease and with the arrival of promising approaches to modulate them, effective therapeutic cell products are now emerging. This review examines how the ability to generate diverse CNS cell types from stem cells, along with a deeper understanding of cell-type-specific functions and pathology, is advancing preclinical development of cell products for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally Temple
- Neural Stem Cell Institute, Rensselaer, NY 12144, USA.
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7
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Sugeno N, Hasegawa T. Unraveling the Complex Interplay between Alpha-Synuclein and Epigenetic Modification. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076645. [PMID: 37047616 PMCID: PMC10094812 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Alpha-synuclein (αS) is a small, presynaptic neuronal protein encoded by the SNCA gene. Point mutations and gene multiplication of SNCA cause rare familial forms of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Misfolded αS is cytotoxic and is a component of Lewy bodies, which are a pathological hallmark of PD. Because SNCA multiplication is sufficient to cause full-blown PD, gene dosage likely has a strong impact on pathogenesis. In sporadic PD, increased SNCA expression resulting from a minor genetic background and various environmental factors may contribute to pathogenesis in a complementary manner. With respect to genetic background, several risk loci neighboring the SNCA gene have been identified, and epigenetic alterations, such as CpG methylation and regulatory histone marks, are considered important factors. These alterations synergistically upregulate αS expression and some post-translational modifications of αS facilitate its translocation to the nucleus. Nuclear αS interacts with DNA, histones, and their modifiers to alter epigenetic status; thereby, influencing the stability of neuronal function. Epigenetic changes do not affect the gene itself but can provide an appropriate transcriptional response for neuronal survival through DNA methylation or histone modifications. As a new approach, publicly available RNA sequencing datasets from human midbrain-like organoids may be used to compare transcriptional responses through epigenetic alterations. This informatic approach combined with the vast amount of transcriptomics data will lead to the discovery of novel pathways for the development of disease-modifying therapies for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoto Sugeno
- Division of Neurology, Department of Neuroscience & Sensory Organs, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8574, Japan
| | - Takafumi Hasegawa
- Division of Neurology, Department of Neuroscience & Sensory Organs, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai 980-8574, Japan
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8
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Saleem A, Santos AC, Aquilino MS, Sivitilli AA, Attisano L, Carlen PL. Modelling hyperexcitability in human cerebral cortical organoids: Oxygen/glucose deprivation most effective stimulant. Heliyon 2023; 9:e14999. [PMID: 37089352 PMCID: PMC10113787 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Epilepsy is a common neurological disorder that affects 1% of the global population. The neonatal period constitutes the highest incidence of seizures. Despite the continual developments in seizure modelling and anti-epileptic drug development, the mechanisms involved in neonatal seizures remain poorly understood. This leaves infants with neonatal seizures at a high risk of death, poor prognosis of recovery and risk of developing neurological disorders later in life. Current in vitro platforms for modelling adult and neonatal epilepsies - namely acute cerebral brain slices or cell-derived cultures, both derived from animals-either lack a complex cytoarchitecture, high-throughput capabilities or physiological similarities to the neonatal human brain. Cerebral organoids, derived from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs), are an emerging technology that could better model neurodevelopmental disorders in the developing human brain. Herein, we study induced hyperexcitability in human cerebral cortical organoids - setting the groundwork for neonatal seizure modelling - using electrophysiological techniques and pharmacological manipulations. In neonatal seizures, energy failure - specifically due to deprivation of oxygen and glucose - is a consistent and reliable seizure induction method that has been used to study the underlying cellular and molecular mechanisms. Here, we applied oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) as well as common chemoconvulsants in 3-7-month-old cerebral organoids. Remarkably, OGD resulted in hyperexcitability, with increased power and spontaneous events compared to other common convulsants tested at the population level. These findings characterize OGD as the stimulus most capable of inducing hyperexcitable changes in cerebral organoid tissue, which could be extended to future modelling of neonatal epilepsies in cerebral organoids.
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9
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Kumar A, Cai S, Allam M, Henderson S, Ozbeyler M, Saiontz L, Coskun AF. Single-Cell and Spatial Analysis of Emergent Organoid Platforms. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2660:311-344. [PMID: 37191807 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3163-8_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Organoids have emerged as a promising advancement of the two-dimensional (2D) culture systems to improve studies in organogenesis, drug discovery, precision medicine, and regenerative medicine applications. Organoids can self-organize as three-dimensional (3D) tissues derived from stem cells and patient tissues to resemble organs. This chapter presents growth strategies, molecular screening methods, and emerging issues of the organoid platforms. Single-cell and spatial analysis resolve organoid heterogeneity to obtain information about the structural and molecular cellular states. Culture media diversity and varying lab-to-lab practices have resulted in organoid-to-organoid variability in morphology and cell compositions. An essential resource is an organoid atlas that can catalog protocols and standardize data analysis for different organoid types. Molecular profiling of individual cells in organoids and data organization of the organoid landscape will impact biomedical applications from basic science to translational use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditi Kumar
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Shuangyi Cai
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Mayar Allam
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Samuel Henderson
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Melissa Ozbeyler
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Lilly Saiontz
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Ahmet F Coskun
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
- Interdisciplinary Bioengineering Graduate Program, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, , Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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10
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Cuevas-Diaz Duran R, González-Orozco JC, Velasco I, Wu JQ. Single-cell and single-nuclei RNA sequencing as powerful tools to decipher cellular heterogeneity and dysregulation in neurodegenerative diseases. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:884748. [PMID: 36353512 PMCID: PMC9637968 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.884748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 08/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases affect millions of people worldwide and there are currently no cures. Two types of common neurodegenerative diseases are Alzheimer's (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). Single-cell and single-nuclei RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq and snRNA-seq) have become powerful tools to elucidate the inherent complexity and dynamics of the central nervous system at cellular resolution. This technology has allowed the identification of cell types and states, providing new insights into cellular susceptibilities and molecular mechanisms underlying neurodegenerative conditions. Exciting research using high throughput scRNA-seq and snRNA-seq technologies to study AD and PD is emerging. Herein we review the recent progress in understanding these neurodegenerative diseases using these state-of-the-art technologies. We discuss the fundamental principles and implications of single-cell sequencing of the human brain. Moreover, we review some examples of the computational and analytical tools required to interpret the extensive amount of data generated from these assays. We conclude by highlighting challenges and limitations in the application of these technologies in the study of AD and PD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Iván Velasco
- Instituto de Fisiología Celular—Neurociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
- Laboratorio de Reprogramación Celular, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía “Manuel Velasco Suárez”, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Jia Qian Wu
- The Vivian L. Smith Department of Neurosurgery, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, United States
- Center for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, UT Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
- MD Anderson Cancer Center UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, TX, United States
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11
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Sabate-Soler S, Nickels SL, Saraiva C, Berger E, Dubonyte U, Barmpa K, Lan YJ, Kouno T, Jarazo J, Robertson G, Sharif J, Koseki H, Thome C, Shin JW, Cowley SA, Schwamborn JC. Microglia integration into human midbrain organoids leads to increased neuronal maturation and functionality. Glia 2022; 70:1267-1288. [PMID: 35262217 PMCID: PMC9314680 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The human brain is a complex, three-dimensional structure. To better recapitulate brain complexity, recent efforts have focused on the development of human-specific midbrain organoids. Human iPSC-derived midbrain organoids consist of differentiated and functional neurons, which contain active synapses, as well as astrocytes and oligodendrocytes. However, the absence of microglia, with their ability to remodel neuronal networks and phagocytose apoptotic cells and debris, represents a major disadvantage for the current midbrain organoid systems. Additionally, neuroinflammation-related disease modeling is not possible in the absence of microglia. So far, no studies about the effects of human iPSC-derived microglia on midbrain organoid neural cells have been published. Here we describe an approach to derive microglia from human iPSCs and integrate them into iPSC-derived midbrain organoids. Using single nuclear RNA Sequencing, we provide a detailed characterization of microglia in midbrain organoids as well as the influence of their presence on the other cells of the organoids. Furthermore, we describe the effects that microglia have on cell death and oxidative stress-related gene expression. Finally, we show that microglia in midbrain organoids affect synaptic remodeling and increase neuronal excitability. Altogether, we show a more suitable system to further investigate brain development, as well as neurodegenerative diseases and neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Sabate-Soler
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), Developmental and Cellular Biology, University of Luxembourg, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Sarah Louise Nickels
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), Developmental and Cellular Biology, University of Luxembourg, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Cláudia Saraiva
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), Developmental and Cellular Biology, University of Luxembourg, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Emanuel Berger
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), Developmental and Cellular Biology, University of Luxembourg, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Ugne Dubonyte
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), Developmental and Cellular Biology, University of Luxembourg, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Kyriaki Barmpa
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), Developmental and Cellular Biology, University of Luxembourg, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Yan Jun Lan
- Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, RIKEN, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan.,ETH Zurich, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tsukasa Kouno
- Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, RIKEN, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Javier Jarazo
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), Developmental and Cellular Biology, University of Luxembourg, Belvaux, Luxembourg.,OrganoTherapeutics SARL-S, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Graham Robertson
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), Developmental and Cellular Biology, University of Luxembourg, Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Jafar Sharif
- Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, RIKEN, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Haruhiko Koseki
- Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, RIKEN, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Christian Thome
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jay W Shin
- Center for Integrative Medical Sciences, RIKEN, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Sally A Cowley
- Oxford Parkinson's Disease Centre, James Martin Stem Cell Facility, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Jens C Schwamborn
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), Developmental and Cellular Biology, University of Luxembourg, Belvaux, Luxembourg
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12
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Tang XY, Wu S, Wang D, Chu C, Hong Y, Tao M, Hu H, Xu M, Guo X, Liu Y. Human organoids in basic research and clinical applications. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2022; 7:168. [PMID: 35610212 PMCID: PMC9127490 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-022-01024-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Organoids are three-dimensional (3D) miniature structures cultured in vitro produced from either human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) or adult stem cells (AdSCs) derived from healthy individuals or patients that recapitulate the cellular heterogeneity, structure, and functions of human organs. The advent of human 3D organoid systems is now possible to allow remarkably detailed observation of stem cell morphogens, maintenance and differentiation resemble primary tissues, enhancing the potential to study both human physiology and developmental stage. As they are similar to their original organs and carry human genetic information, organoids derived from patient hold great promise for biomedical research and preclinical drug testing and is currently used for personalized, regenerative medicine, gene repair and transplantation therapy. In recent decades, researchers have succeeded in generating various types of organoids mimicking in vivo organs. Herein, we provide an update on current in vitro differentiation technologies of brain, retinal, kidney, liver, lung, gastrointestinal, cardiac, vascularized and multi-lineage organoids, discuss the differences between PSC- and AdSC-derived organoids, summarize the potential applications of stem cell-derived organoids systems in the laboratory and clinic, and outline the current challenges for the application of organoids, which would deepen the understanding of mechanisms of human development and enhance further utility of organoids in basic research and clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Yan Tang
- Institute for Stem Cell and Neural Regeneration, School of Pharmacy; State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine; Key Laboratory of Targeted Intervention of Cardiovascular Disease, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disease Translational Medicine; Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Shanshan Wu
- Institute for Stem Cell and Neural Regeneration, School of Pharmacy; State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine; Key Laboratory of Targeted Intervention of Cardiovascular Disease, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disease Translational Medicine; Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Da Wang
- Institute for Stem Cell and Neural Regeneration, School of Pharmacy; State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine; Key Laboratory of Targeted Intervention of Cardiovascular Disease, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disease Translational Medicine; Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Chu Chu
- Institute for Stem Cell and Neural Regeneration, School of Pharmacy; State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine; Key Laboratory of Targeted Intervention of Cardiovascular Disease, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disease Translational Medicine; Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yuan Hong
- Institute for Stem Cell and Neural Regeneration, School of Pharmacy; State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine; Key Laboratory of Targeted Intervention of Cardiovascular Disease, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disease Translational Medicine; Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Mengdan Tao
- Institute for Stem Cell and Neural Regeneration, School of Pharmacy; State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine; Key Laboratory of Targeted Intervention of Cardiovascular Disease, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disease Translational Medicine; Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Hao Hu
- Institute for Stem Cell and Neural Regeneration, School of Pharmacy; State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine; Key Laboratory of Targeted Intervention of Cardiovascular Disease, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disease Translational Medicine; Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Min Xu
- Institute for Stem Cell and Neural Regeneration, School of Pharmacy; State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine; Key Laboratory of Targeted Intervention of Cardiovascular Disease, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disease Translational Medicine; Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xing Guo
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences; Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.
| | - Yan Liu
- Institute for Stem Cell and Neural Regeneration, School of Pharmacy; State Key Laboratory of Reproductive Medicine; Key Laboratory of Targeted Intervention of Cardiovascular Disease, Collaborative Innovation Center for Cardiovascular Disease Translational Medicine; Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China.
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13
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Zagare A, Barmpa K, Smajic S, Smits LM, Grzyb K, Grünewald A, Skupin A, Nickels SL, Schwamborn JC. Midbrain organoids mimic early embryonic neurodevelopment and recapitulate LRRK2-p.Gly2019Ser-associated gene expression. Am J Hum Genet 2022; 109:311-327. [PMID: 35077669 PMCID: PMC8874228 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2021.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Human brain organoid models that recapitulate the physiology and complexity of the human brain have a great potential for in vitro disease modeling, in particular for neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson disease. In the present study, we compare single-cell RNA-sequencing data of human midbrain organoids to the developing human embryonic midbrain. We demonstrate that the in vitro model is comparable to its in vivo equivalents in terms of developmental path and cellular composition. Moreover, we investigate the potential of midbrain organoids for modeling early developmental changes in Parkinson disease. Therefore, we compare the single-cell RNA-sequencing data of healthy-individual-derived midbrain organoids to their isogenic LRRK2-p.Gly2019Ser-mutant counterparts. We show that the LRRK2 p.Gly2019Ser variant alters neurodevelopment, resulting in an untimely and incomplete differentiation with reduced cellular variability. Finally, we present four candidate genes, APP, DNAJC6, GATA3, and PTN, that might contribute to the LRRK2-p.Gly2019Ser-associated transcriptome changes that occur during early neurodevelopment.
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14
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Spathopoulou A, Edenhofer F, Fellner L. Targeting α-Synuclein in Parkinson's Disease by Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell Models. Front Neurol 2022; 12:786835. [PMID: 35145469 PMCID: PMC8821105 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.786835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive, neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor and non-motor symptoms. To date, no specific treatment to halt disease progression is available, only medication to alleviate symptoms can be prescribed. The main pathological hallmark of PD is the development of neuronal inclusions, positive for α-synuclein (α-syn), which are termed Lewy bodies (LBs) or Lewy neurites. However, the cause of the inclusion formation and the loss of neurons remain largely elusive. Various genetic determinants were reported to be involved in PD etiology, including SNCA, DJ-1, PRKN, PINK1, LRRK2, and GBA. Comprehensive insights into pathophysiology of PD critically depend on appropriate models. However, conventional model organisms fall short to faithfully recapitulate some features of this complex disease and as a matter-of-fact access to physiological tissue is limiting. The development of disease models replicating PD that are close to human physiology and dynamic enough to analyze the underlying molecular mechanisms of disease initiation and progression, as well as the generation of new treatment options, is an important and overdue step. Recently, the establishment of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived neural models, particularly from genetic PD-variants, developed into a promising strategy to investigate the molecular mechanisms regarding formation of inclusions and neurodegeneration. As these iPSC-derived neurons can be generated from accessible biopsied samples of PD patients, they carry pathological alterations and enable the possibility to analyze the differences compared to healthy neurons. This review focuses on iPSC models carrying genetic PD-variants of α-syn that will be especially helpful in elucidating the pathophysiological mechanisms of PD. Furthermore, we discuss how iPSC models can be instrumental in identifying cellular targets, potentially leading to the development of new therapeutic treatments. We will outline the enormous potential, but also discuss the limitations of iPSC-based α-syn models.
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15
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Fiorenzano A, Sozzi E, Birtele M, Kajtez J, Giacomoni J, Nilsson F, Bruzelius A, Sharma Y, Zhang Y, Mattsson B, Emnéus J, Ottosson DR, Storm P, Parmar M. Single-cell transcriptomics captures features of human midbrain development and dopamine neuron diversity in brain organoids. Nat Commun 2021; 12:7302. [PMID: 34911939 PMCID: PMC8674361 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-27464-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Three-dimensional brain organoids have emerged as a valuable model system for studies of human brain development and pathology. Here we establish a midbrain organoid culture system to study the developmental trajectory from pluripotent stem cells to mature dopamine neurons. Using single cell RNA sequencing, we identify the presence of three molecularly distinct subtypes of human dopamine neurons with high similarity to those in developing and adult human midbrain. However, despite significant advancements in the field, the use of brain organoids can be limited by issues of reproducibility and incomplete maturation which was also observed in this study. We therefore designed bioengineered ventral midbrain organoids supported by recombinant spider-silk microfibers functionalized with full-length human laminin. We show that silk organoids reproduce key molecular aspects of dopamine neurogenesis and reduce inter-organoid variability in terms of cell type composition and dopamine neuron formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Fiorenzano
- Developmental and Regenerative Neurobiology, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, and Lund Stem Cell Center, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.
| | - Edoardo Sozzi
- grid.4514.40000 0001 0930 2361Developmental and Regenerative Neurobiology, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, and Lund Stem Cell Center, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Marcella Birtele
- grid.4514.40000 0001 0930 2361Developmental and Regenerative Neurobiology, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, and Lund Stem Cell Center, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Janko Kajtez
- grid.4514.40000 0001 0930 2361Developmental and Regenerative Neurobiology, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, and Lund Stem Cell Center, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Jessica Giacomoni
- grid.4514.40000 0001 0930 2361Developmental and Regenerative Neurobiology, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, and Lund Stem Cell Center, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Nilsson
- grid.4514.40000 0001 0930 2361Developmental and Regenerative Neurobiology, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, and Lund Stem Cell Center, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Andreas Bruzelius
- grid.4514.40000 0001 0930 2361Regenerative Neurophysiology, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, Lund Stem Cell Center, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Yogita Sharma
- grid.4514.40000 0001 0930 2361Developmental and Regenerative Neurobiology, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, and Lund Stem Cell Center, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Yu Zhang
- grid.4514.40000 0001 0930 2361Developmental and Regenerative Neurobiology, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, and Lund Stem Cell Center, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Bengt Mattsson
- grid.4514.40000 0001 0930 2361Developmental and Regenerative Neurobiology, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, and Lund Stem Cell Center, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Jenny Emnéus
- grid.5170.30000 0001 2181 8870Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine (DTU Bioengineering), Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Daniella Rylander Ottosson
- grid.4514.40000 0001 0930 2361Regenerative Neurophysiology, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, Lund Stem Cell Center, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Petter Storm
- grid.4514.40000 0001 0930 2361Developmental and Regenerative Neurobiology, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, and Lund Stem Cell Center, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Malin Parmar
- grid.4514.40000 0001 0930 2361Developmental and Regenerative Neurobiology, Wallenberg Neuroscience Center, and Lund Stem Cell Center, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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16
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Walter J, Bolognin S, Poovathingal SK, Magni S, Gérard D, Antony PMA, Nickels SL, Salamanca L, Berger E, Smits LM, Grzyb K, Perfeito R, Hoel F, Qing X, Ohnmacht J, Bertacchi M, Jarazo J, Ignac T, Monzel AS, Gonzalez-Cano L, Krüger R, Sauter T, Studer M, de Almeida LP, Tronstad KJ, Sinkkonen L, Skupin A, Schwamborn JC. The Parkinson's-disease-associated mutation LRRK2-G2019S alters dopaminergic differentiation dynamics via NR2F1. Cell Rep 2021; 37:109864. [PMID: 34686322 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that neurodevelopmental alterations might contribute to increase the susceptibility to develop neurodegenerative diseases. We investigate the occurrence of developmental abnormalities in dopaminergic neurons in a model of Parkinson's disease (PD). We monitor the differentiation of human patient-specific neuroepithelial stem cells (NESCs) into dopaminergic neurons. Using high-throughput image analyses and single-cell RNA sequencing, we observe that the PD-associated LRRK2-G2019S mutation alters the initial phase of neuronal differentiation by accelerating cell-cycle exit with a concomitant increase in cell death. We identify the NESC-specific core regulatory circuit and a molecular mechanism underlying the observed phenotypes. The expression of NR2F1, a key transcription factor involved in neurogenesis, decreases in LRRK2-G2019S NESCs, neurons, and midbrain organoids compared to controls. We also observe accelerated dopaminergic differentiation in vivo in NR2F1-deficient mouse embryos. This suggests a pathogenic mechanism involving the LRRK2-G2019S mutation, where the dynamics of dopaminergic differentiation are modified via NR2F1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Walter
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Silvia Bolognin
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Suresh K Poovathingal
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Stefano Magni
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Deborah Gérard
- Department of Life Science and Medicine (DLSM), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Paul M A Antony
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Sarah L Nickels
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg; Department of Life Science and Medicine (DLSM), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Luis Salamanca
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Emanuel Berger
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Lisa M Smits
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Kamil Grzyb
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Rita Perfeito
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, Coimbra 3004-504, Portugal
| | - Fredrik Hoel
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Jonas Lies Vei 91, 5009 Bergen, Norway
| | - Xiaobing Qing
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Jochen Ohnmacht
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg; Department of Life Science and Medicine (DLSM), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | | | - Javier Jarazo
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Tomasz Ignac
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Anna S Monzel
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Laura Gonzalez-Cano
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Rejko Krüger
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg; Transversal Translational Medicine, Luxembourg Institute of Health, Strassen, Luxembourg; Centre Hospitalier de Luxembourg, Luxembourg City, Luxembourg
| | - Thomas Sauter
- Department of Life Science and Medicine (DLSM), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Michèle Studer
- Université Côte d'Azur, CNRS, Inserm, 06108 Nice, France
| | - Luis Pereira de Almeida
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, Coimbra 3004-504, Portugal; Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra, Coimbra 3000-548, Portugal
| | - Karl J Tronstad
- Department of Biomedicine, University of Bergen, Jonas Lies Vei 91, 5009 Bergen, Norway
| | - Lasse Sinkkonen
- Department of Life Science and Medicine (DLSM), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Alexander Skupin
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg; Center for Research of Biological Systems, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Jens C Schwamborn
- Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedicine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 4362 Belvaux, Luxembourg.
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17
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Mohamed NV, Sirois J, Ramamurthy J, Mathur M, Lépine P, Deneault E, Maussion G, Nicouleau M, Chen CXQ, Abdian N, Soubannier V, Cai E, Nami H, Thomas RA, Wen D, Tabatabaei M, Beitel LK, Singh Dolt K, Karamchandani J, Stratton JA, Kunath T, Fon EA, Durcan TM. Midbrain organoids with an SNCA gene triplication model key features of synucleinopathy. Brain Commun 2021; 3:fcab223. [PMID: 34632384 PMCID: PMC8495137 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcab223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
SNCA, the first gene associated with Parkinson's disease, encodes the α-synuclein protein, the predominant component within pathological inclusions termed Lewy bodies. The presence of Lewy bodies is one of the classical hallmarks found in the brain of patients with Parkinson's disease, and Lewy bodies have also been observed in patients with other synucleinopathies. However, the study of α-synuclein pathology in cells has relied largely on two-dimensional culture models, which typically lack the cellular diversity and complex spatial environment found in the brain. Here, to address this gap, we use three-dimensional midbrain organoids, differentiated from human-induced pluripotent stem cells derived from patients carrying a triplication of the SNCA gene and from CRISPR/Cas9 corrected isogenic control iPSCs. These human midbrain organoids recapitulate key features of α-synuclein pathology observed in the brains of patients with synucleinopathies. In particular, we find that SNCA triplication human midbrain organoids express elevated levels of α-synuclein and exhibit an age-dependent increase in α-synuclein aggregation, manifested by the presence of both oligomeric and phosphorylated forms of α-synuclein. These phosphorylated α-synuclein aggregates were found in both neurons and glial cells and their time-dependent accumulation correlated with a selective reduction in dopaminergic neuron numbers. Thus, human midbrain organoids from patients carrying SNCA gene multiplication can reliably model key pathological features of Parkinson's disease and provide a powerful system to study the pathogenesis of synucleinopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nguyen-Vi Mohamed
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Julien Sirois
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Janani Ramamurthy
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Meghna Mathur
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Paula Lépine
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Eric Deneault
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Gilles Maussion
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Michael Nicouleau
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Carol X-Q Chen
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Narges Abdian
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Vincent Soubannier
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Eddie Cai
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Harris Nami
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Rhalena A Thomas
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Dingke Wen
- Department of Neurosurgery, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610063, China
| | - Mahdieh Tabatabaei
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada.,C-BIG Biorepository (C-BIG), Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Lenore K Beitel
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Karamjit Singh Dolt
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
| | - Jason Karamchandani
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada.,C-BIG Biorepository (C-BIG), Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Jo Anne Stratton
- Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Tilo Kunath
- Centre for Regenerative Medicine, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4UU, UK
| | - Edward A Fon
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Thomas M Durcan
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 2B4, Canada
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18
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Guy B, Zhang JS, Duncan LH, Johnston RJ. Human neural organoids: Models for developmental neurobiology and disease. Dev Biol 2021; 478:102-121. [PMID: 34181916 PMCID: PMC8364509 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2021.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Revised: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Human organoids stand at the forefront of basic and translational research, providing experimentally tractable systems to study human development and disease. These stem cell-derived, in vitro cultures can generate a multitude of tissue and organ types, including distinct brain regions and sensory systems. Neural organoid systems have provided fundamental insights into molecular mechanisms governing cell fate specification and neural circuit assembly and serve as promising tools for drug discovery and understanding disease pathogenesis. In this review, we discuss several human neural organoid systems, how they are generated, advances in 3D imaging and bioengineering, and the impact of organoid studies on our understanding of the human nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Guy
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N. Charles Street, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
| | - Jingliang Simon Zhang
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N. Charles Street, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
| | - Leighton H Duncan
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Robert J Johnston
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N. Charles Street, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA.
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19
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Renner H, Schöler HR, Bruder JM. Combining Automated Organoid Workflows With Artificial Intelligence-Based Analyses: Opportunities to Build a New Generation of Interdisciplinary High-Throughput Screens for Parkinson's Disease and Beyond. Mov Disord 2021; 36:2745-2762. [PMID: 34498298 DOI: 10.1002/mds.28775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease and primarily characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta of the midbrain. Despite decades of research and the development of various disease model systems, there is no curative treatment. This could be due to current model systems, including cell culture and animal models, not adequately recapitulating human PD etiology. More complex human disease models, including human midbrain organoids, are maturing technologies that increasingly enable the strategic incorporation of the missing components needed to model PD in vitro. The resulting organoid-based biological complexity provides new opportunities and challenges in data analysis of rich multimodal data sets. Emerging artificial intelligence (AI) capabilities can take advantage of large, broad data sets and even correlate results across disciplines. Current organoid technologies no longer lack the prerequisites for large-scale high-throughput screening (HTS) and can generate complex yet reproducible data suitable for AI-based data mining. We have recently developed a fully scalable and HTS-compatible workflow for the generation, maintenance, and analysis of three-dimensional (3D) microtissues mimicking key characteristics of the human midbrain (called "automated midbrain organoids," AMOs). AMOs build a reproducible, scalable foundation for creating next-generation 3D models of human neural disease that can fuel mechanism-agnostic phenotypic drug discovery in human in vitro PD models and beyond. Here, we explore the opportunities and challenges resulting from the convergence of organoid HTS and AI-driven data analytics and outline potential future avenues toward the discovery of novel mechanisms and drugs in PD research. © 2021 The Authors. Movement Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Renner
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Biomedicine, Münster, Germany
| | - Hans R Schöler
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Biomedicine, Münster, Germany
| | - Jan M Bruder
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Biomedicine, Münster, Germany
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20
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Mohamed NV, Lépine P, Lacalle-Aurioles M, Sirois J, Mathur M, Reintsch W, Beitel LK, Fon EA, Durcan TM. Microfabricated disk technology: rapid scale up in midbrain organoid generation. Methods 2021; 203:465-477. [PMID: 34314827 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2021.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
By providing a three-dimensional in vitro culture system with key features of the substantia nigra region in the brain, 3D neuronal organoids derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) provide living neuronal tissue resembling the midbrain region of the brain. However, a major limitation of conventional brain organoid culture is that it is often labor-intensive, requiring highly specialized personnel for moderate throughput. Additionally, the methods published for long-term cultures require time-consuming maintenance to generate brain organoids in large numbers. With the increasing need for human midbrain organoids (hMOs) to better understand and model Parkinson's disease (PD) in a dish, there is a need to implement new workflows and methods to both generate and maintain hMOs, while minimizing batch to batch variation. In this study, we developed a method with microfabricated disks to scale up the generation of hMOs. This opens up the possibility to generate larger numbers of hMOs, in a manner that minimizes the amount of labor required, while decreasing variability and maintaining the viability of these hMOs over time. Taken together, producing hMOs in this manner opens up the potential for these to be used to further PD studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nguyen-Vi Mohamed
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, 3801 University Street, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 2B4, Canada.
| | - Paula Lépine
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, 3801 University Street, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - María Lacalle-Aurioles
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, 3801 University Street, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Julien Sirois
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, 3801 University Street, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Meghna Mathur
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, 3801 University Street, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Wolfgang Reintsch
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, 3801 University Street, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Lenore K Beitel
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, 3801 University Street, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Edward A Fon
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, 3801 University Street, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Thomas M Durcan
- Early Drug Discovery Unit (EDDU), Montreal Neurological Institute-Hospital, Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, McGill University, 3801 University Street, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 2B4, Canada.
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21
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Zagare A, Gobin M, Monzel AS, Schwamborn JC. A robust protocol for the generation of human midbrain organoids. STAR Protoc 2021; 2:100524. [PMID: 34027482 PMCID: PMC8121770 DOI: 10.1016/j.xpro.2021.100524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The lack of advanced in vitro models recapitulating the human brain complexity is still a major obstacle in brain development and neurological disease research. Here, we describe a robust protocol to derive human midbrain organoids from neuroepithelial stem cells. These complex 3D models are characterized by the presence of functional neurons, including dopaminergic neurons and glial cells, making them particularly attractive for the study of Parkinson disease. For complete details on the use and execution of this protocol, please refer to Monzel et al. (2017). Reproducible generation of midbrain organoids from patterned neural precursor cells Midbrain organoids comprise dopaminergic neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes Cellular interaction and maturation are boosted by extracellular matrix embedding Suitable for in vitro midbrain development research and disease modeling
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Affiliation(s)
- Alise Zagare
- Developmental and Cellular Biology, Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedecine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 6, Avenue du Swing, 4367 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Matthieu Gobin
- Developmental and Cellular Biology, Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedecine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 6, Avenue du Swing, 4367 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Anna S Monzel
- Developmental and Cellular Biology, Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedecine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 6, Avenue du Swing, 4367 Belvaux, Luxembourg
| | - Jens C Schwamborn
- Developmental and Cellular Biology, Luxembourg Centre for Systems Biomedecine (LCSB), University of Luxembourg, 6, Avenue du Swing, 4367 Belvaux, Luxembourg
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22
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Gomes AR, Fernandes TG, Cabral JM, Diogo MM. Modeling Rett Syndrome with Human Pluripotent Stem Cells: Mechanistic Outcomes and Future Clinical Perspectives. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:3751. [PMID: 33916879 PMCID: PMC8038474 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22073751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Rett syndrome (RTT) is a neurodevelopmental disorder caused by mutations in the gene encoding the methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2). Among many different roles, MeCP2 has a high phenotypic impact during the different stages of brain development. Thus, it is essential to intensively investigate the function of MeCP2, and its regulated targets, to better understand the mechanisms of the disease and inspire the development of possible therapeutic strategies. Several animal models have greatly contributed to these studies, but more recently human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) have been providing a promising alternative for the study of RTT. The rapid evolution in the field of hPSC culture allowed first the development of 2D-based neuronal differentiation protocols, and more recently the generation of 3D human brain organoid models, a more complex approach that better recapitulates human neurodevelopment in vitro. Modeling RTT using these culture platforms, either with patient-specific human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) or genetically-modified hPSCs, has certainly contributed to a better understanding of the onset of RTT and the disease phenotype, ultimately allowing the development of high throughput drugs screening tests for potential clinical translation. In this review, we first provide a brief summary of the main neurological features of RTT and the impact of MeCP2 mutations in the neuropathophysiology of this disease. Then, we provide a thorough revision of the more recent advances and future prospects of RTT modeling with human neural cells derived from hPSCs, obtained using both 2D and organoids culture systems, and its contribution for the current and future clinical trials for RTT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Rita Gomes
- Department of Bioengineering and IBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (A.R.G.); (T.G.F.); (J.M.S.C.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular-João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Tiago G. Fernandes
- Department of Bioengineering and IBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (A.R.G.); (T.G.F.); (J.M.S.C.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Joaquim M.S. Cabral
- Department of Bioengineering and IBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (A.R.G.); (T.G.F.); (J.M.S.C.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria Margarida Diogo
- Department of Bioengineering and IBB-Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal; (A.R.G.); (T.G.F.); (J.M.S.C.)
- Associate Laboratory i4HB-Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Rovisco Pais, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
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23
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Galet B, Cheval H, Ravassard P. Patient-Derived Midbrain Organoids to Explore the Molecular Basis of Parkinson's Disease. Front Neurol 2020; 11:1005. [PMID: 33013664 PMCID: PMC7500100 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2020.01005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Induced pluripotent stem cell-derived organoids offer an unprecedented access to complex human tissues that recapitulate features of architecture, composition and function of in vivo organs. In the context of Parkinson's Disease (PD), human midbrain organoids (hMO) are of significant interest, as they generate dopaminergic neurons expressing markers of Substantia Nigra identity, which are the most vulnerable to degeneration. Combined with genome editing approaches, hMO may thus constitute a valuable tool to dissect the genetic makeup of PD by revealing the effects of risk variants on pathological mechanisms in a representative cellular environment. Furthermore, the flexibility of organoid co-culture approaches may also enable the study of neuroinflammatory and neurovascular processes, as well as interactions with other brain regions that are also affected over the course of the disease. We here review existing protocols to generate hMO, how they have been used so far to model PD, address challenges inherent to organoid cultures, and discuss applicable strategies to dissect the molecular pathophysiology of the disease. Taken together, the research suggests that this technology represents a promising alternative to 2D in vitro models, which could significantly improve our understanding of PD and help accelerate therapeutic developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Galet
- Molecular Pathophysiology of Parkinson's Disease Group, Paris Brain Institute (ICM), INSERM U, CNRS UMR 7225, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | - Hélène Cheval
- Molecular Pathophysiology of Parkinson's Disease Group, Paris Brain Institute (ICM), INSERM U, CNRS UMR 7225, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
| | - Philippe Ravassard
- Molecular Pathophysiology of Parkinson's Disease Group, Paris Brain Institute (ICM), INSERM U, CNRS UMR 7225, Sorbonne University, Paris, France
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