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Pavlovič A, Kocáb O. Alternative oxidase (AOX) in the carnivorous pitcher plants of the genus Nepenthes: what is it good for? ANNALS OF BOTANY 2022; 129:357-365. [PMID: 34922341 PMCID: PMC8835642 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcab151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The carnivorous pitcher plants of the genus Nepenthes have evolved modified leaves that act as pitcher traps. The traps are specialized for prey attraction, capture, digestion and nutrient uptake but not for photosynthetic assimilation. METHODS In this study, we used antibodies against different photosynthetic (D1, Lhcb2, Lhcb4, RbcL) and respiratory-related (AOX, COXII) proteins for semi-quantification of these proteins in the assimilation part of the leaves and the pitcher traps of different Nepenthes species and hybrids. Different functional zones of the trap and the traps from different ontogenetic stages were investigated. The pitcher traps of the distantly related species Sarracenia purpurea ssp. venosa were used as an outgroup. In addition, chlorophyll fluorescence and infrared gas analysis were used for measurements of the net rate of photosynthesis (AN) and respiration in the dark (RD). KEY RESULTS The pitcher traps contained the same or lower abundance of photosynthesis-related proteins in accordance with their low AN in comparison to the assimilation part of the leaves. Surprisingly, all traps contained a high amount of alternative oxidase (AOX) and low amount of cytochrome c oxidase subunit II (COX II) than in the assimilation part of the leaves. Thermal imaging did not confirm the role of AOX in pitcher thermogenesis. CONCLUSIONS The pitcher traps contain a high amount of AOX enzyme. The possible role of AOX in specialized pitcher tissue is discussed based on knowledge of the role and function of AOX in non-carnivorous plants. The roles of AOX in prey attraction, balance between light and dark reactions of photosynthesis, homeostasis of reactive oxygen species, digestive physiology and nutrient assimilation are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrej Pavlovič
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Kocáb
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic
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Kocáb O, Bačovčinová M, Bokor B, Šebela M, Lenobel R, Schöner CR, Schöner MG, Pavlovič A. Enzyme activities in two sister-species of carnivorous pitcher plants (Nepenthes) with contrasting nutrient sequestration strategies. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2021; 161:113-121. [PMID: 33581619 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2021.01.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The carnivorous pitcher plants of the genus Nepenthes usually attract, capture and digest arthropod prey to obtain mineral nutrients. But few members of the genus have evolved specialized nutrient sequestration strategies to acquire nitrogen from the faeces and urine of mutualistic mammals, which they attract. Because the plants obtain significant amounts of nitrogen in a more available form, we hypothesized that they have relaxed the production of digestive enzymes. If so, species that digest mammal faeces should show fewer digestive enzymes than closely related species that rely on arthropods. We tested this hypothesis by comparing digestive enzymes in 1) Nepenthes hemsleyana, whose pitchers serve as roosts for the mutualistic woolly bat Kerivoula hardwickii, which also defecate inside the pitchers, and 2) the close relative Nepenthes rafflesiana, a typical arthropod capturing species. To investigate the dynamics of aspartic proteases (nepenthesin I and II) and type III and IV chitinases in both species, we conducted qPCR, western blotting, mass spectrometry, and enzyme activity measurements. We found that mRNA in pitcher tissue and enzyme abundance in the digestive fluid is upregulated in both species in response to faeces and insect feeding. Contrary to our initial hypothesis, the final nepenthesin proteolytic activity in the digestive fluid is higher in response to faeces addition than to insect prey irrespective of Nepenthes species. This indicates that faeces can mimic arthropod prey triggering the production of digestive enzymes and N. hemsleyana retained capacity for production of them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ondřej Kocáb
- Department of Biophysics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Michaela Bačovčinová
- Department of Botany, Institute of Biology and Ecology, Šafárik University, Mánesova 23, SK-040 01, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Boris Bokor
- Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Ilkovičova 6, Mlynská Dolina B2, SK-842 15, Bratislava, Slovakia; Comenius University Science Park, Comenius University in Bratislava, Ilkovičova 8, SK-841 04, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Marek Šebela
- Department of Protein Biochemistry and Proteomics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - René Lenobel
- Department of Protein Biochemistry and Proteomics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Caroline R Schöner
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Straße 26, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Michael G Schöner
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Straße 26, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Andrej Pavlovič
- Department of Biophysics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic.
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Mathis KA, Bronstein JL. Our Current Understanding of Commensalism. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ECOLOGY EVOLUTION AND SYSTEMATICS 2020. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-011720-040844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Commensalisms, interactions between two species in which one species benefits and the other experiences no net effect, are frequently mentioned in the ecological literature but are surprisingly little studied. Here we review and synthesize our limited understanding of commensalism. We then argue that commensalism is not a single type of interaction; rather, it is a suite of phenomena associated with distinct ecological processes and evolutionary consequences. For each form of commensalism we define, we present evidence for how, where, and why it occurs, including when it is evolutionarily persistent and when it is an occasional outcome of interactions that are usually mutualistic or antagonistic. We argue that commensalism should be of great interest in the study of species interactions due to its location at the center of the continuum between positive and negative outcomes. Finally, we offer a roadmap for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlyn A. Mathis
- Department of Biology, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts 01610, USA
| | - Judith L. Bronstein
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA
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Passos FCS, Leal LC. Protein matters: ants remove herbivores more frequently from extrafloral nectary-bearing plants when habitats are protein poor. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blz033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Felipe C S Passos
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Zoologia, Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, Bahia, Brasil
| | - Laura C Leal
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Zoologia, Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, Bahia, Brasil
- Departamento de Ecologia e Biologia Evolutiva, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Diadema, São Paulo, Brasil
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Schöner MG, Schöner CR, Ermisch R, Puechmaille SJ, Grafe TU, Tan MC, Kerth G. Stabilization of a bat-pitcher plant mutualism. Sci Rep 2017; 7:13170. [PMID: 29030597 PMCID: PMC5640698 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-13535-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the long persistence of many mutualisms, it is largely unknown which mechanisms stabilize these interactions. This is especially true if only one mutualism partner can choose alternative partners while the other cannot, resulting in a power asymmetry. According to biological market theory the choosing partner should prefer the more dependent partner if the latter offers commodities of higher quality than its competitors. We tested this prediction using Bornean carnivorous pitcher plants (Nepenthes hemsleyana) that strongly rely on faecal nitrogen of bats (Kerivoula hardwickii) which roost inside the pitchers. The bats also roost in furled leaves of various plants. Surprisingly, during field observations the bats did not always choose N. hemsleyana pitchers despite their superior quality but were generally faithful either to pitchers or to furled leaves. In behavioural experiments 21% of the leaf-roosting bats switched to pitchers, while the majority of these bats and all pitcher-roosting individuals were faithful to the roost type in which we had found them. Genetic differentiation cannot explain this faithfulness, which likely results from different roosting traditions. Such traditions could have stabilizing or destabilizing effects on various mutualisms and should be investigated in more detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael G Schöner
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Straße 26, 17489, Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Caroline R Schöner
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Straße 26, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Rebecca Ermisch
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Straße 26, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Sébastien J Puechmaille
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Straße 26, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - T Ulmar Grafe
- Faculty of Science, Biology, University Brunei Darussalam, Tungku Link, Gadong, 1410, Brunei Darussalam
| | - Moi Chan Tan
- Faculty of Science, Biology, University Brunei Darussalam, Tungku Link, Gadong, 1410, Brunei Darussalam
| | - Gerald Kerth
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Straße 26, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
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Schöner MG, Schöner CR, Kerth G, Suhaini SNBP, Grafe TU. Handle with care: enlarged pads improve the ability of Hardwicke’s woolly bat, Kerivoula hardwickii (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae), to roost in a carnivorous pitcher plant. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blx098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Schöner MG, Schöner CR, Kerth G, Ji LL, Grafe TU. Bats Attend to Plant Structures to Identify Roosting Sites. ACTA CHIROPTEROLOGICA 2016. [DOI: 10.3161/15081109acc2016.18.2.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael G. Schöner
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, J.-S.-Bach-Strasse 11/12, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Caroline R. Schöner
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, J.-S.-Bach-Strasse 11/12, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Gerald Kerth
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, J.-S.-Bach-Strasse 11/12, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Liaw Lin Ji
- Faculty of Science, University Brunei Darussalam, Tungku Link, Gadong 1410, Brunei Darussalam
| | - T. Ulmar Grafe
- Faculty of Science, University Brunei Darussalam, Tungku Link, Gadong 1410, Brunei Darussalam
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Schöner MG, Simon R, Schöner CR. Acoustic communication in plant-animal interactions. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2016; 32:88-95. [PMID: 27423052 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2016.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2016] [Revised: 06/08/2016] [Accepted: 06/14/2016] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Acoustic communication is widespread and well-studied in animals but has been neglected in other organisms such as plants. However, there is growing evidence for acoustic communication in plant-animal interactions. While knowledge about active acoustic signalling in plants (i.e. active sound production) is still in its infancy, research on passive acoustic signalling (i.e. reflection of animal sounds) revealed that bat-dependent plants have adapted to the bats' echolocation systems by providing acoustic reflectors to attract their animal partners. Understanding the proximate mechanisms and ultimate causes of acoustic communication will shed light on an underestimated dimension of information transfer between plants and animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael G Schöner
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, J.-S.-Bach-Str. 11/12, 17489 Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Ralph Simon
- Department of Sensor Technology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Paul-Gordan-Str. 3/5, 91052 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Caroline R Schöner
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, J.-S.-Bach-Str. 11/12, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
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Sickel W, Grafe TU, Meuche I, Steffan-Dewenter I, Keller A. Bacterial Diversity and Community Structure in Two Bornean Nepenthes Species with Differences in Nitrogen Acquisition Strategies. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY 2016; 71:938-53. [PMID: 26790863 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-015-0723-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2014] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Carnivorous plants of the genus Nepenthes have been studied for over a century, but surprisingly little is known about associations with microorganisms. The two species Nepenthes rafflesiana and Nepenthes hemsleyana differ in their pitcher-mediated nutrient sources, sequestering nitrogen from arthropod prey and arthropods as well as bat faeces, respectively. We expected bacterial communities living in the pitchers to resemble this diet difference. Samples were taken from different parts of the pitchers (leaf, peristome, inside, outside, digestive fluid) of both species. Bacterial communities were determined using culture-independent high-throughput amplicon sequencing. Bacterial richness and community structure were similar in leaves, peristomes, inside and outside walls of both plant species. Regarding digestive fluids, bacterial richness was higher in N. hemsleyana than in N. rafflesiana. Additionally, digestive fluid communities were highly variable in structure, with strain-specific differences in community composition between replicates. Acidophilic taxa were mostly of low abundance, except the genus Acidocella, which strikingly reached extremely high levels in two N. rafflesiana fluids. In N. hemsleyana fluid, some taxa classified as vertebrate gut symbionts as well as saprophytes were enriched compared to N. rafflesiana, with saprophytes constituting potential competitors for nutrients. The high variation in community structure might be caused by a number of biotic and abiotic factors. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria were present in both study species, which might provide essential nutrients to the plant at times of low prey capture and/or rare encounters with bats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wiebke Sickel
- Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - T Ulmar Grafe
- Faculty of Science, University Brunei Darussalam, Tungku Link, Gadong, BE, 1410, Brunei
| | - Ivonne Meuche
- Faculty of Science, University Brunei Darussalam, Tungku Link, Gadong, BE, 1410, Brunei
| | - Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter
- Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Alexander Keller
- Department of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology, Biocenter, University of Würzburg, 97074, Würzburg, Germany.
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Bauer U, Rembold K, Grafe TU. CarnivorousNepenthespitcher plants are a rich food source for a diverse vertebrate community. J NAT HIST 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2015.1059963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Schöner M, Schöner C, Simon R, Grafe T, Puechmaille S, Ji L, Kerth G. Bats Are Acoustically Attracted to Mutualistic Carnivorous Plants. Curr Biol 2015; 25:1911-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.05.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2015] [Revised: 05/04/2015] [Accepted: 05/27/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Jones G. Sensory Biology: Acoustic Reflectors Attract Bats to Roost in Pitcher Plants. Curr Biol 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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