The risk of postpolypectomy bleeding during colonoscopy in patients with early liver cirrhosis

Hematological abnormalities in liver cirrhosis

Hematological abnormalities are common in cirrhosis and are associated with various pathophysiological mechanisms. Studies have documented a prevalence of thrombocytopenia, leukopenia, and anemia in patients with compensated cirrhosis of 77.9%, 23.5%, and 21.1%, respectively. These abnormalities carry significant clinical implications, including considerations for invasive procedures, infection risk, bleeding risk, and prognosis. Previously, cirrhosis was believed to predispose patients to bleeding due to alterations observed in classical coagulation tests such as prothrombin time, partial thromboplastin time, international normalized ratio, and thrombocytopenia. However, this understanding has evolved, and cirrhosis patients are now also acknowledged as being at a high risk for thrombotic events. Hemostasis in cirrhosis patients presents a complex phenotype, with procoagulant and anticoagulant abnormalities offsetting each other. This multifactorial phenomenon is inadequately reflected by routine laboratory tests. Thrombotic complications are more prevalent in decompensated cirrhosis and may correlate with disease severity. Bleeding is primarily associated with portal hypertension, endothelial dysfunction, mechanical vessel injury, disseminated intravascular coagulation, endotoxemia, and renal injury. This review comprehensively outlines hematologic index abnormalities, mechanisms of hemostasis, coagulation, and fibrinolysis abnormalities, limitations of laboratory testing, and clinical manifestations of bleeding and thrombosis in patients with liver cirrhosis.

Position paper on perioperative management and surgical risk in the patient with cirrhosis

INTRODUCTION

Management of the patient with cirrhosis of the liver that requires surgical treatment has been relatively unexplored. In Mexico, there is currently no formal stance or expert recommendations to guide clinical decision-making in this context.

AIMS

The present position paper reviews the existing evidence on risks, prognoses, precautions, special care, and specific management or procedures for patients with cirrhosis that require surgical interventions or invasive procedures. Our aim is to provide recommendations by an expert panel, based on the best published evidence, and consequently ensure timely, quality, efficient, and low-risk care for this specific group of patients.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven recommendations were developed that address preoperative considerations, intraoperative settings, and postoperative follow-up and care.

CONCLUSIONS

The assessment and care of patients with cirrhosis that require major surgical or invasive procedures should be overseen by a multidisciplinary team that includes the anesthesiologist, hepatologist, gastroenterologist, and clinical nutritionist. With respect to decompensated patients, a nephrology specialist may be required, given that kidney function is also a parameter involved in the prognosis of these patients.

Development of a Risk Stratification Model for Pre-liver-Transplant Screening Colonoscopy

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Colonoscopies are routinely obtained before liver transplantation, although their utility is a highly debated topic in the literature. We aimed to determine the risk factors in patients with decompensated cirrhosis (DC) for post-colonoscopy complications (PCC).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed a single-center retrospective study of patients with DC undergoing colonoscopy as part of their pre-liver-transplant evaluation. The primary composite outcome was defined as a complication occurring within 30 days of the colonoscopy. Complications included acute renal failure, new or worsening ascites or hepatic encephalopathy, gastrointestinal bleeding, or any cardiopulmonary or infectious complication. Logistic regression analysis was utilized to derive a risk score in predicting the primary composite outcome.

RESULTS

The strongest predictors of post-colonoscopy complication were MELD-Na ≥21 [aOR 4.0026 ( P =0.0050)] and history of any infection in the 30 days before colonoscopy [aOR 8.4345 ( P =0.0093)]. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of the final model was 0.78. The predicted risk of any complication at the lowest quartile was 16.2% to 39.4%, and the observed risk was 30.6% (95% CI: 15.5-45.6%), while the predicted risk at the highest quartile was 71.9% to 97.1%, and the observed risk was 81.3% (95% CI: 67.7-95%).

CONCLUSION

In this cohort of patients with DC undergoing colonoscopy for pre-liver-transplant evaluation, a history of ascites, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, and MELD-Na were found to be predictive of PCC. This risk score may help to predict PCC in patients with DC undergoing a pre-transplant colonoscopy. External validation is recommended.

Review of Thromboelastography (TEG): Medical and Surgical Applications

Thromboelastography (TEG) is a laboratory assay utilized to evaluate hemostatic properties of blood, identify coagulopathy, and guide blood product administration. While the clinical use of TEG started in the care of surgical patients, the assay has now been incorporated more routinely in the care of the medical patient as well. In this review, we explore the evolution of TEG from the historical perspective of its inception to the current state of the art of the assay. The TEG procedure and its measurements are illustrated along with a table that summarizes recommendations from across the medical and surgical literature. After each section, we review salient learning points to provide the busy clinician with information that can be immediately integrated at the bedside. We conclude with a series of summary questions to check for comprehension and direct the reader to additional resources to improve their knowledge of TEG.

The Risk of Endoscopy-Related Bleeding in Patients with Liver Cirrhosis: A Retrospective Study

Background and Objectives: The risk of bleeding after endoscopic procedures in patients with liver cirrhosis remains unclear because of secondary blood coagulation disorders. In this study, we used various indices to evaluate the risk of bleeding in patients with cirrhosis. Materials and Methods: Patients with liver cirrhosis aged ≥18 years who underwent endoscopic interventions at Kyung Hee University Hospital at Gangdong between February 2007 and September 2021 were included. Clinical information, including demographic data, laboratory results, the presence of cirrhosis complications, and the degree of fibrosis, was checked and evaluated based on medical records. Results: A total of 101 patients with cirrhosis were analyzed. A total of 16 of the 101 patients (15.8%) experienced bleeding after the endoscopic procedure. One patient (0.99%) presented with spurting, while the others presented with mild oozing. All patients underwent hemostatic procedures using hemoclips. The presence of a varix significantly increased post-endoscopic bleeding (p = 0.03). Patients with FIB > 3.25 showed a statistically significant bleeding tendency (p = 0.00). Conclusions: There was no significant difference in bleeding risk according to the platelet count, prothrombin time, Child−Pugh score, and model for end-stage liver disease (MELD). Considering the degree of liver fibrosis and the invasiveness of the planned procedure, most endoscopic procedures can be performed safely but should be further evaluated in a cohort with a larger sample size.

EASL Clinical Practice Guidelines on prevention and management of bleeding and thrombosis in patients with cirrhosis

The prevention and management of bleeding and thrombosis in patients with cirrhosis poses several difficult clinical questions. These Clinical Practice Guidelines have been developed to provide practical guidance on debated topics, including current views on haemostasis in liver disease, controversy regarding the need to correct thrombocytopenia and abnormalities in the coagulation system in patients undergoing invasive procedures, and the need for thromboprophylaxis in hospitalised patients with haemostatic abnormalities. Multiple recommendations in this document are based on interventions that the panel feels are not useful, even though widely applied in clinical practice.

Safety and efficacy of common endoscopic treatments in patients with decompensated liver cirrhosis

INTRODUCTION

The safety and efficacy have always been a concern, when patients with decompensated liver cirrhosis (DLC) receive endoscopic treatments.

METHODS

To evaluate the safety and efficacy of common endoscopic treatments including endoscopic resection (ER) and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) applying to patients with DLC, we performed a retrospective study finally including 81 patients receiving ER (43 endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) and 38 endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD)) and 131 patients treated by ERCP.

RESULTS

There were no significant differences in the rate of degeneration and invariability of Child-Pugh (CP) class and the overall rate of adverse events between two groups (93.8%/8.6% ER vs. 96.2%/15.3% ERCP). Both the degeneration rate of CP class (35.4%) and the rate of adverse events (27.1%) in subgroup CP class C of ERCP group were significantly higher (P=0). The rate of poor outcomes was higher in ERCP group (12.2%) than that in ER group (2.5%) (P=0.02). And subgroup CP class C of ERCP group had a higher poor outcome rate (27.1%) (P=0).

CONCLUSION

ER and ERCP could remove focal lesions or relieve symptoms induced by targeted diseases without significant changes of CP class. Significant benefits and risks coexisted in CP class C patients with DLC when receiving ERCP.

Child-Pugh B or C Cirrhosis Increases the Risk for Bleeding Following Colonoscopic Polypectomy

Background/Aims

The risk for colonoscopic postpolypectomy bleeding (PPB) in patients with chronic liver disease (CLD) remains unclear. We determined the incidence and risk factors for colonoscopic PPB in patients with CLD, especially those with liver cirrhosis.

Methods

We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of patients with CLD who underwent colonoscopic polypectomy at Seoul National University Hospital between 2011 and 2014. The study endpoints were immediate and delayed PPB.

Results

A total of 1,267 consecutive patients with CLD were included in the study. Immediate PPB occurred significantly more often in the Child-Pugh (CP) B or C cirrhosis group (17.5%) than in the CP-A (6.3%) and chronic hepatitis (4.6%) groups (p<0.001). Moreover, the incidence of delayed PPB in the CP-B or C cirrhosis group (4.4%) was significantly higher than that in the CP-A (0.7%) and chronic hepatitis (0.2%) groups (p<0.001). The independent risk factors for immediate PPB were CP-B or C cirrhosis (p=0.011), a platelet count <50,000/μL (p<0.001), 3 or more polyps (p=0.017), endoscopic mucosal resection or submucosal dissection (p<0.001), and polypectomy performed by trainees (p<0.001). The independent risk factors for delayed PPB were CP-B or C cirrhosis (p=0.009), and polyps >10 mm in size (p=0.010).

Conclusions

Patients with CP-B or C cirrhosis had an increased risk for bleeding following colonoscopic polypectomy.

Procedure-related bleeding risk in patients with cirrhosis and severe thrombocytopenia

BACKGROUND

Gaps of knowledge still exist about the potential association between severe thrombocytopenia and increased risk of procedure-associated bleeding in patients with liver disease.

METHODS

In this narrative review, we aimed at examining the association between procedure-related bleeding risk and platelet count in patients with cirrhosis and severe thrombocytopenia in various settings. We updated to 2020 a previously conducted literature search using MEDLINE/PubMed and EMBASE. The search string included clinical studies, adult patients with chronic liver disease and thrombocytopenia undergoing invasive procedures, any interventions and comparators, and haemorrhagic events of any severity as outcome.

RESULTS

The literature search identified 1276 unique publications, and 15 studies met the inclusion criteria and were analysed together with those identified by the previous search. Most of the new studies included in our analysis did not assess the association between post-procedural bleeding risk and platelet count alone in patients with chronic liver disease. Furthermore, some results could have been biased by prophylactic platelet transfusions. A few studies found that severe thrombocytopenia may be predictive of bleeding following percutaneous liver biopsy, dental extractions, percutaneous ablation of liver tumours and endoscopic polypectomy.

CONCLUSIONS

Currently available literature cannot support definitive conclusions about the appropriate target platelet counts to improve the risk of bleeding in cirrhotic patients who underwent invasive procedures; moreover, it showed enormous variability in the use of prophylactic platelet transfusions.

Risk Factors Associated With Postendoscopic Mucosal Resection Bleeding in Patients With Cirrhosis: A Retrospective Multicenter Cohort Study

BACKGROUND AND AIM

There is limited data regarding the safety of endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) in the cirrhotic population. Our study aimed to evaluate the safety of colonoscopic EMR in cirrhosis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This was a retrospective review of cirrhotics who underwent colonic EMR at 8 Cleveland Clinic Centers between January 1, 2006, and December 31, 2018. Patient data including polyp details and complications occurring within 30 days of the procedure were noted. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were conducted to find risk factors for post-EMR bleeding.

RESULTS

A total of 238 patients who underwent EMR were included. There were 145 males (60.9%) and the mean age was 61.9±8.6 years. Immediate and delayed bleeding, and postpolypectomy syndrome rates were 9.2%, 5.8%, and 1.3%, respectively. Significant risk factors for postpolypectomy bleeding were: increased age (P=0.001), procedure duration >37 minutes (P=0.001), antiplatelet use within 5 days (P=0.023), and lesion diameter >15 mm (P=0.004). Multivariable analysis revealed independent predictors of procedure-related bleeding: age above 65 years [odds ratio (OR) 2.14, P=0.044], antiplatelet use within 5 days (OR 2.42, P=0.047), right colon polyp (OR 3.51, P=0.001), and lesion diameter >15 mm (OR 3.22, P=0.003).

CONCLUSIONS

EMR in cirrhotics has an acceptable bleeding risk. Age above 65 years, right colon polyp, polyp size >15 mm, and use of antiplatelets within 5 days are independent risk factors for bleeding.

Bleeding After Elective Interventional Endoscopic Procedures in a Large Cohort of Patients With Cirrhosis

INTRODUCTION:

Elective therapeutic endoscopy is an important component of care of cirrhotic patients, but there are concerns regarding the risk of bleeding. This study examined the incidence, risk factors, and outcomes of bleeding after endoscopic variceal ligation (EVL), colonoscopic polypectomy, and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography with sphincterotomy in cirrhotic patients.

METHODS:

A cohort study of patients with cirrhosis who underwent the above procedures at a single center between 2012 and 2014 was performed. Patients with active bleeding at the time of procedure were excluded. Patients were followed for 30 days to assess for postprocedural bleeding and for 90 days for mortality.

RESULTS:

A total of 1,324 procedures were performed in 857 patients (886 upper endoscopies, 358 colonoscopies, and 80 endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatograpies). After EVL, bleeding occurred in 2.8%; after polypectomy, bleeding occurred in 2.0%; and after sphincterotomy, bleeding occurred in 3.8%. Independent predictors of bleeding after EVL and polypectomy included younger age and lower hemoglobin. For EVL, bleeding was also associated with infection and model for end-stage liver disease-Na. International normalized ratio was associated with bleeding in univariate analysis only, and platelet count was not associated with bleeding in any procedure. Bleeding after EVL was associated with 29% 90-day mortality, and bleeding after polypectomy was associated with 14% mortality. Of the 3 patients with postsphincterotomy bleeding, none were outliers regarding their baseline characteristics.

DISCUSSION:

In patients with cirrhosis, bleeding occurs infrequently after elective therapeutic endoscopy and is associated with younger age, lower hemoglobin, and high mortality. Consideration of these risk factors may guide appropriate timing and preprocedural management to optimize outcomes.

Risk of ambulatory colonoscopy in patients with cirrhosis: a propensity-score matched cohort study

Background and study aims  Patients with cirrhosis demonstrate alterations in physiology, hemodynamics, and immunity which may increase procedural risk. There exist sparse data regarding the safety of performing ambulatory colonoscopy in patients with cirrhosis. Patients and methods  From a population-based sample of three North American states (California, Florida, and New York), we collected data on 3,590 patients with cirrhosis who underwent ambulatory colonoscopy from 2009 to 2014. We created a control cohort propensity score-matched for cirrhotic severity who did not undergo colonoscopy (N = 3,590) in order to calculate the attributable risk for adverse events. The primary endpoint was the rate of unplanned hospital encounters (UHEs) within 14 days of colonoscopy (or from a synthetic index date for the control cohort). Predictors for UHE were assessed in multivariable regression. Results  The attributable risk for any UHE following colonoscopy was 3.1 % (confidence interval [CI] 2.1-4.1 %, P  < 0.001). There was increased risk for infection (0.9 %, CI 0.7-1.1 %), spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (0.1 %, CI 0.0-0.3 %), decompensation of ascites (0.3 %, CI 0.2-0.4 %), and cardiovascular event (0.4 %, CI 0.3-0.5 %). There was no increased attributable risk for gastrointestinal bleeding, perforation, or development of the hepatorenal syndrome. The presence of ascites at time of procedure was the only predictor for UHE in the fully-adjusted model (OR 2.6, CI 1.9-3.5, P  < 0.001). Conclusions  There is a moderate though detectable increase in risk for adverse event following ambulatory colonoscopy in patients with cirrhosis. The presence of ascites in particular portends higher risk. These data may guide clinicians when counseling patients with cirrhosis on the choice of colorectal cancer screening modality.

The Yield and Safety of Screening Colonoscopy in Patients Evaluated for Liver Transplantation

Colorectal cancer (CRC) screening with colonoscopy is commonly used in patients who are candidates for liver transplantation. We initiated this study to define the risk-benefit ratio of performing screening colonoscopy in this population. A retrospective observational study of all consecutive patients undergoing colonoscopy during pre-liver transplantation screening between 2004 and 2017 was conducted. Endoscopic and pathological findings and clinical events potentially related to the colonoscopy in the 30 days after the procedure were registered and compared with a 30-day inpatient control time frame. A total of 858 colonoscopies were performed in 808 patients (65% male; median age, 55 years [interquartile range (IQR), 47-62]; median model for end-stage liver disease (MELD) score, 15 [IQR, 11-18]). CRC was found in 2 patients (0.2%), and advanced adenomas were found in 44 patients (5.4%). The only independent risk factor for an advanced neoplasm was age (odds ratio, 1.072 per year; 95% confidence interval, 1.031-1.115; P < 0.001). During the 30-day postprocedure period, 178 clinical events occurred in 128 patients compared with 101 clinical events in 72 patients in the control time frames (P < 0.001). After colonoscopy, there was a significantly increased risk for renal failure (P = 0.001) and gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding (P = 0.023). Presence of ascites and MELD score were identified as independent risk factors for acute renal failure and GI bleeding. During the study observation period, 53.5% of the screened population actually underwent liver transplantation. Conclusion: CRC screening in pre-liver transplantation patients is associated with a relatively low prevalence of CRC and an increased risk of postcolonoscopy complications such as acute renal failure and GI bleeding, especially in patients with advanced liver disease. Because the risk-benefit ratio of standard performance of a screening colonoscopy in this population appears questionable, alternative screening strategies should be considered.

Chronic liver disease promotes lesions of the colorectal adenoma-carcinoma sequence, independent of liver cirrhosis

Background

Research increasingly focuses on identifying individuals at greater risk of colorectal cancer (CRC) to enhance colonoscopy screening efficacy.

Objective

The objective of this article is to determine associations between chronic liver disease and lesions along the colorectal adenoma-carcinoma sequence.

Methods

This retrospective study encompasses consecutive liver disease patients (LDPs) of all etiologies evaluated for liver transplantation at a single institution and a control group of liver-healthy patients (LHPs) undergoing colonoscopy as part of the German CRC screening program.

Rates of polyps, adenomas, high-risk situations (HRS) and CRC were analyzed in univariable and multivariable settings adjusting for age, gender, body mass index and number of colonoscopies. Differences between LHPs and LDPs and between cirrhotic and noncirrhotic hepatopathy were assessed.

Results

In total, 1046 patients (52.6% male, median age 59.6 years) were included, of whom 38.9% had liver disease. A total of 41.0% of all patients showed polyps, 23.2% adenomas, 10.0% HRS, and 0.5% CRC. LDPs were more likely to develop polyps, adenomas and HRS than LHPs, both in univariable and multivariable analysis. There were no significant differences between cirrhotic and noncirrhotic patients.

Conclusion

Chronic liver disease of any etiology is associated with colonic lesions of the colorectal adenoma-carcinoma sequence, independent of cirrhosis. LDPs should receive intensified, and earlier, colonoscopy screening.

Pediatric Endoscopic Procedure Complications

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This review summarizes the current body of research, define high-risk patients and endoscopic processes, and outline evidence-based countermeasures aimed at minimizing the incidence of complications during endoscopy in children.

RECENT FINDINGS

Significant complications of endoscopy requiring emergency department or inpatient admission in otherwise healthy children are unusual, but more common with therapeutic procedures; risk from procedures increases incrementally with preoperative coexisting conditions. Duodenal hematoma is predominantly a pediatric endoscopic complication and is more likely in hematology-oncology patients. Air embolism is a well-defined endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) complication in adults and is likely to increase in children with increased performance of pediatric ERCP. Increased physician expertise is the most often proposed countermeasure, especially in the context of endoscopy complications in the higher-risk patient and procedure. Endoscopy in children remains a very safe group of procedures, although a more detailed understanding of risk factors and ideal training and practice organization is lacking.

Bleeding Risk with Invasive Procedures in Patients with Cirrhosis and Coagulopathy

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Previous perceptions of cirrhosis as a hypocoagulable state have resulted in empirical blood product transfusions prior to invasive procedures. We evaluate procedure-related bleeding risks in patients with cirrhosis, assess the utility of conventional and newer global coagulation tests, and explore evidence surrounding prophylactic transfusion strategies.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent literature supports the concept of a rebalanced, albeit fragile, haemostasis equilibrium in cirrhosis, with a potential hypercoagulable tendency in stable patients. Standard coagulation tests provide a poor reflection of bleeding risks and yet are relied upon for transfusion thresholds. Consequently, a sizeable proportion of patients receive unnecessary blood products. The role of viscoelastic tests to guide transfusions requires further evaluation. In stable cirrhotic patients, procedure-related bleeding rates appear low. Prophylactic transfusion strategies based on arbitrary thresholds lack evidence of clinical benefit. There is a pressing need for point-of-care coagulation tests that represent the complex coagulopathy of cirrhosis and well-powered randomised controlled trials to develop evidence-based pre-procedure transfusion guidelines.

Who Orders a Head CT?: Perceptions of the Cirrhotic Bleeding Risk in an International, Multispecialty Survey Study

OBJECTIVE

Traditional coagulopathic indices, including elevated international normalized ratio, do not correlate with bleeding risk in patients with cirrhosis. For this reason, head computed tomography (CT) has a low yield in cirrhotic patients with altered mental status and no trauma history. The initial diagnostic evaluation, however, is often made by nongastroenterologists influenced by the so-called "coagulopathy of cirrhosis." We sought to examine the prevalence, impact, and malleability of this perception in an international, multispecialty cohort.

DESIGN

An electronic survey was distributed to internal medicine, surgery, emergency medicine, and gastroenterology physicians. Respondents were presented with a cirrhotic patient with hepatic encephalopathy, no history of trauma, and a nonfocal neurological examination. Respondents rated likelihood to order head CT at presentation, after obtaining labs [international normalized ratio (INR) 2.4 and platelets 59×10/μL], and finally after reading the results of a study demonstrating the low yield of head CT in this setting.

RESULTS

In total, 1286 physicians from 6 countries, 84% from the United States. Of these, 62% were from internal medicine, 25% from emergency medicine, 8% from gastroenterology, and 5% from surgery. Totally, 47% of respondents were attending physicians. At each timepoint, emergency physicians were more likely, and gastroenterologists less likely, to scan than all other specialties (P<0.0001). Evidence on the low yield of head CT reduced likelihood to scan for all specialties. Qualitative analysis of open-ended comments confirmed that concern for "coagulopathy of cirrhosis" motivated CT orders.

CONCLUSIONS

Perceptions regarding the coagulopathy of cirrhosis, which vary across specialties, impact clinical decision-making. Exposure to clinical evidence has the potential to change practice patterns.

Endoscopic resection of colorectal polyps in patients on antiplatelet therapy: an evidence-based guidance for clinicians

Due to the rising prevalence of coronary heart disease, endoscopists are more frequently performing a polypectomy in patients on antiplatelet therapy (APT) and dual antiplatelet therapy (DATP). Despite the availability of several guidelines with regard to the management of antiplatelet drugs during the periprocedure period, there is still variability in the current clinical practice. This may be influenced by the low quality of the evidence supporting recommendations, because most of the studies dealing with APT and polypectomy are observational and retrospective, and include mainly small (< 10 mm) polyps. However, some recommendations can still be made. An estimation of the bleeding and thrombotic risk of the patient should be made in advance. In the case of DAPT the procedure should be postponed, at least until clopidogrel can be safely withheld. If possible, non-aspirin antiplatelet drugs should be withheld 5-7 days before the procedure. Polyp size is the main factor related with post-polypectomy bleeding and it is the factor that should drive clinical decisions regarding the resection method and the use of endoscopic prophylactic measures. Non-aspirin antiplatelet agents can be reintroduced 24-48 hours after the procedure. In conclusion, there is little data with regard to the management of DAPT in patients with a scheduled polypectomy. Large randomized controlled trials are needed to support clinical recommendations.

Incidence and risk factors of delayed postpolypectomy bleeding in patients with chronic liver disease

OBJECTIVE

Hepatologists and colonoscopists often hesitate to perform a colonoscopic polypectomy in patients with chronic liver disease (CLD), especially those with cirrhosis, because of the risk of postpolypectomy bleeding (PPB). We aimed to investigate the incidence and risk factors of delayed PPB after a colonoscopic polypectomy in patients with CLD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In total, 152 patients with CLD who underwent colonoscopic polypectomy from December 2005 to December 2012 were retrospectively reviewed.

RESULTS

Cirrhosis was identified in 80 (52.6%) patients. During the study period, 442 polyps were removed and delayed PPB developed in 14 (9.2%) patients. The incidence of delayed PPB was significantly higher in patients with cirrhosis than in those without the disease (13.8% [n = 11] vs. 4.2% [n = 3], p = 0.041). The polyp size (odds ratio, 1.087; 95% confidence interval, 1.009-1.172) and cirrhosis (odds ratio, 8.535; 95% confidence interval, 2.417-30.140) were independent risk factors for delayed PPB. In patients with cirrhosis, the optimal cut-off size to identify high-risk polyps for delayed PPB was 10 mm (area under the receiver operating characteristics curve, 0.737; sensitivity, 52%; specificity, 88%).

CONCLUSION

Caution is needed when colonoscopic polypectomy is planned in patients with CLD who have larger polyps and cirrhosis.

Colonoscopy with polypectomy is associated with a low rate of complications in patients with cirrhosis

BACKGROUND AND STUDY AIMS

Cirrhotic patients are at a theoretically increased risk of bleeding. The safety of polypectomy in cirrhosis is poorly defined.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We performed a retrospective review of patients with cirrhosis who underwent colonoscopic polypectomy at a tertiary-care hospital. Patient characteristics and polyp data were collected. Development of complications including immediate bleeding, delayed bleeding, hospitalization, blood transfusion, perforation, and death were recorded to 30-day follow-up. Clinical characteristics between bleeders and non-bleeders were compared, and predictors of bleeding were determined.

RESULTS

A total of 307 colonoscopies with 638 polypectomies were identified. Immediate bleeding occurred in 7.5 % (95 % CI 4.6 % - 10.4 %) and delayed bleeding occurred in 0.3 % (95 % CI 0.0 % - 0.9 %) of colonoscopies. All cases of immediate bleeding were controlled endoscopically and none resulted in serious complication. The rate of hospitalization was 0.7 % (95 % CI 0.0 % - 1.6 %) and repeat colonoscopy 0.3 % (95 % CI 0.0 % - 0.9 %); no cases of perforation, blood transfusion, or death occurred. Lower platelet count, higher INR, presence of ascites, and presence of esophageal varices were associated with increased risk of bleeding. Use of electrocautery was associated with a lower risk of immediate bleeding. There was no significant difference between bleeding and non-bleeding polyps with regard to size, morphology, and histology.

CONCLUSIONS

Colonoscopy with polypectomy appears safe in patients with cirrhosis. There is a low risk of major complications. The risk of immediate bleeding appears higher than an average risk population; however, most bleeding is self-limited or can be controlled endoscopically. Bleeding tends to occur with more advanced liver disease. Both the sequelae of portal hypertension and coagulation abnormalities are predictive of bleeding.

Hemostatic balance in patients with liver cirrhosis: Report of a consensus conference

Patients with cirrhosis present with hemostatic alterations secondary to reduced availability of pro-coagulant and anti-coagulant factors. The net effect of these changes is a rebalanced hemostatic system. The Italian Association of the Study of the Liver (AISF) and the Italian Society of Internal Medicine (SIMI) promoted a consensus conference on the hemostatic balance in patients with cirrhosis. The consensus process started with the review of the literature by a scientific board of experts and ended with a formal consensus meeting in Rome in December 2014. The statements were graded according to quality of evidence and strength of recommendations, and approved by an independent jury. The statements presented here highlight strengths and weaknesses of current laboratory tests to assess bleeding and thrombotic risk in cirrhotic patients, the pathophysiology of hemostatic perturbations in this condition, and outline the optimal management of bleeding and thrombosis in patients with liver cirrhosis.

Thrombelastography-guided blood product use before invasive procedures in cirrhosis with severe coagulopathy: A randomized, controlled trial

Bleeding is a feared complication of invasive procedures in patients with cirrhosis and significant coagulopathy (as defined by routine coagulation tests) and is used to justify preprocedure use of fresh frozen plasma (FFP) and/or platelets (PLT). Thromboelastography (TEG) provides a more comprehensive global coagulation assessment than routine tests (international normalized ratio [INR] and platelet count), and its use may avoid unnecessary blood product transfusion in patients with cirrhosis and significant coagulopathy (defined in this study as INR >1.8 and/or platelet count <50 × 10(9) /L) who will be undergoing an invasive procedure. Sixty patients were randomly allocated to TEG-guided transfusion strategy or standard of care (SOC; 1:1 TEG:SOC). The TEG group would receive FFP if the reaction time (r) was >40 min and/or PLT if maximum amplitude (MA) was <30 mm. All SOC patients received FFP and/or PLT per hospital guidelines. Endpoints were blood product use and bleeding complications. Baseline characteristics of the two groups were similar. Per protocol, all subjects in the SOC group received blood product transfusions versus 5 in the TEG group (100% vs. 16.7%; P < 0.0001). Sixteen SOC (53.3%) received FFP, 10 (33.3%) PLT, and 4 (13.3%) both FFP and PLT. In the TEG group, none received FFP alone (P < 0.0001 vs. SOC), 2 received PLT (6.7%; P = 0.009 vs. SOC), and 3 both FFP and PLT (not significant). Postprocedure bleeding occurred in only 1 patient (SOC group) after large-volume paracentesis.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with cirrhosis and significant coagulopathy before invasive procedures, TEG-guided transfusion strategy leads to a significantly lower use of blood products compared to SOC (transfusion guided by INR and platelet count), without an increase in bleeding complications. Remarkably, even in patients with significant coagulopathy, postprocedure bleeding was rare, indicating that TEG thresholds should be reevaluated.

A greater proportion of liver transplant candidates have colorectal neoplasia than in the healthy screening population

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Various types of liver disease are associated with an increased prevalence of colorectal adenomas. We investigated whether cirrhosis is a risk factor for colorectal neoplasia by analyzing colonoscopy findings from 2 cohorts of patients awaiting liver transplantation.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective analysis to compare findings from colorectal cancer screenings of 567 adult patients with cirrhosis placed on the waitlist for liver transplantation with those from controls (matched for age, sex, body mass index, smoking, and diabetes). Rates of adenoma and advanced adenoma detection were adjusted owing to differences in rates of polypectomies performed in the 2 cohorts.

RESULTS

Adenomas were detected in a significantly higher percentage of patients with cirrhosis (29.3%) than in controls (21.5%) (P = .0057; relative risk [RR], 1.36; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.09-1.69); and patients with cirrhosis had a higher rate of advanced adenoma detection than controls (13.9% vs 7.7%; P = .0015; relative risk, 1.82; 95% CI, 1.25-2.64). A greater percentage of patients with alcoholic cirrhosis had neoplasias (34.3%) than controls (25.3%; P = .0350; RR, 1.36), and rates of advanced adenoma detection were 16.7% vs 10.2% (P = .0409; RR, 1.63). Adenomas were detected in 27.8% of patients with viral cirrhosis vs 15.9% of controls (P = .0061; RR, 1.74), with rates of advanced adenoma detection of 13.6% vs 5.0% (P = .0041; RR, 2.73). Similar proportions of patients with cirrhosis of other etiologies and controls were found to have colorectal neoplasias.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on a retrospective analysis of colonoscopy findings from patients awaiting liver transplantation, those with alcoholic or viral cirrhosis are at higher risk of developing colorectal neoplasia and should be considered for earlier colonoscopy examination.

Management of polypectomy complications

The 2 most significant complications of colonoscopy with polypectomy are bleeding and perforation. Incidence rates for bleeding (0.1%-0.6%) and perforation (0.7%-0.9%) are generally low. Recognition of pertinent risk factors helps to prevent these complications, which can be grouped into patient-related, polyp-related, and technique/device-related factors. Endoscopists should be equipped to manage bleeding and perforation. Currently available devices and techniques are reviewed to achieve hemostasis and close colon perforations.

Coagulopathy in liver disease: a balancing act

Liver disease results in complex alterations of all 3 phases of hemostasis. It is now recognized that hemostasis is rebalanced in chronic liver disease. The fall in clotting factor levels is accompanied by a parallel fall in anticoagulant proteins. High von Willebrand factor levels counteract defects in primary hemostasis. Conventional coagulation tests do not fully reflect the derangement in hemostasis and do not accurately predict the risk of bleeding. Global coagulation assays (thrombin generation, thromboelastography) reflect the interaction between procoagulant factors, anticoagulant factors, platelets, and the fibrinolytic system and show promise for assessing bleeding risk and guiding therapy. These assays are not yet commercially approved or validated. Prevention of bleeding should not be aimed at correcting conventional coagulation tests. Thrombopoietin receptor agonists were shown to increase the platelet count in cirrhotic patients undergoing invasive procedures but may increase the risk of thrombosis. Rebalanced hemostasis in liver disease is precarious and may be tipped toward hemorrhage or thrombosis depending on coexisting circumstantial risk factors. Bacterial infection may impair hemostasis in cirrhosis by triggering the release of endogenous heparinoids. There are no evidence-based guidelines for hemostatic therapy of acute hemorrhage in liver disease. There is currently inadequate evidence to support the use of recombinant FVIIa, prothrombin complex concentrates, or tranexamic acid in acute variceal or other hemorrhage.

Child-Pugh score is an independent risk factor for immediate bleeding after colonoscopic polypectomy in liver cirrhosis

PURPOSE

Post-polypectomy bleeding is the most common colonoscopic polypectomy complication. However, the risk of post-polypectomy bleeding in liver cirrhosis is unknown. We aimed to evaluate the risk of post-polypectomy bleeding in patients with liver cirrhosis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We included 89 patients with liver cirrhosis who received colonoscopic polypectomy between January 2006 and October 2012. Three hundred forty-eight subjects without liver disease who underwent colonoscopic polypectomy comprised the control group. Risks of post-polypectomy bleeding were analyzed according to patient- and polyp-related factors.

RESULTS

Among 89 patients, 75 (84.3%) were Child-Pugh class A, 10 (11.2%) were class B, and 4 (4.5%) were class C. Incidence of immediate post-polypectomy bleeding was significantly increased in cirrhosis with Child-Pugh class B or C compared to liver cirrhosis with Child-Pugh class A or control group [hazard ratio (HR) 3.5; p<0.001]. Polyp size (HR 3.6; p=0.032) and pedunculated polyps (HR 2.4; p=0.022) were also significant risk factors for immediate post-polypectomy bleeding in multivariate analysis.

CONCLUSION

Cirrhotic patients with Child-Pugh class B or C have a high risk of immediate post-polypectomy bleeding. Thus, endoscopists should be cautious about performing colonoscopic polypectomy in patients with Child-Pugh class B or C.

Coagulation in liver disease: a guide for the clinician

The human hemostasis system is complex and poorly understood after decades of intense scientific study. Despite multiple defects in routine coagulation laboratory studies in patients with chronic liver disease, there is growing evidence that these patients are effectively "rebalanced" with regard to procoagulant and anticoagulant activity and that most of these patients remain in a tenuous but balanced state of hemostasis. A major difficulty in the assessment of these patients is that there are no established laboratory tests that accurately reflect the changes in both the procoagulant and anticoagulant systems; therefore, routine laboratory testing is misleading to the clinician and may prompt inappropriate or risky therapies with little real benefit to the patient. The international normalized ratio is an example of this type of misleading test. Although the international normalized ratio is inextricably linked to prognosis and severity of protein synthetic dysfunction in acute and chronic liver disease, it is a very poor marker for bleeding risk and should not be used in isolation for this purpose. Coagulation disorders are critical in the management of frequent clinical scenarios such as esophageal variceal bleeding, invasive and percutaneous procedures, portal vein thrombosis, venous thromboembolism, and acute liver failure. This article summarizes the pathophysiology of hemostasis in liver disease, describes the strengths and weaknesses of various laboratory tests in assessment of these patients, and outlines the optimal management of hemostasis for some common clinical scenarios. Further research is needed for proper understanding of hemostasis in liver disease to optimally and safely manage these complex patients.