Simultaneous voltammetric determination of acetaminophen and dopamine using a glassy carbon electrode modified with copper porphyrin-exfoliated graphene

A systematic review on electrochemical sensors for the detection of acetaminophen

Considerable progress has been made in the electrochemical determination of acetaminophen (AP) over the past few decades. Nanomaterials or enzymes as electrode modifiers greatly improve the performance of AP electrochemical sensors. This review focuses on the development potential, detection principles and techniques for the electrochemical analysis of AP. In particular, the design and construction of AP electrochemical sensors are discussed from the perspective of non-enzyme materials (such as nanomaterials, including precious metals, transition metals and non-metals) and enzyme substances (such as aryl acylamidase, polyphenol oxidase and horseradish peroxidase). Moreover, the influencing factors for AP electrochemical sensors and the simultaneous detection of AP and other targets are summarized, and the future prospective of AP electrochemical sensors is outlined. This review provides a reference and guidance for the development and application of electrochemical sensors for AP detection.

A bibliometric analysis of graphene in acetaminophen detection: Current status, development, and future directions

Acetaminophen is a widely used analgesic throughout the world. Detection of acetaminophen has particular value in pharmacy and clinics. Electrochemical sensors assembled with advanced materials are an effective method for the rapid detection of acetaminophen. Graphene-based carbon nanomaterials have been extensively investigated for potential analytical applications in the last decade. In this article, we selected papers containing both graphene and acetaminophen. Bibliometrics was used to analyze the relationships and trends among these papers. The results show that the topic has grown at a high rate since 2009. Among them, the detection of acetaminophen by an electrochemical sensor based on graphene is the most important direction. Graphene has moved from being a primary sensing material to a substrate for immobilization of other active ingredients. In addition, the degradation of acetaminophen using graphene-modified electrodes is also an important direction. We analyzed the research history and current status of this topic through bibliometrics. Authors, institutions, countries, and key literature were discussed. We also proposed perspectives for this topic.

Dicyandiamide-assisted HKUST-1 derived Cu/N-doped porous carbon nanoarchitecture for electrochemical detection of acetaminophen

MOFs-derived metal/carbon materials have been considered as promising candidates for the electrochemical detection of micropollutants. However, the aggregation of metal nanoparticles and structure collapse of precursor MOFs during pyrolysis significantly hamper the improvement on detecting performance. Herein, a dicyandiamide-assisted strategy is utilized to synthesize well-dispersed Cu/N-doped porous carbon nanoarchitecture (CuNC) for the electrochemical detection of acetaminophen (AP). The constructed CuNC sensor exhibits excellent electro-analytical performance for monitoring AP with linear range from 0.01 μM to 921.2 μM, and the low detection limit of 2.46 nM (S/N = 3). The improved performance of CuNC sensor is ascribed to the introduction of dicyandiamide, which can prevent HKUST-1 framework breakage and reduce the aggregation tendency of Cu, leading to the evenly distributed small Cu nanoparticles, abundant N species, hierarchical channel structure, and high conductivity carbon framework. These advantages endow predominant repeatability, stability, and selectivity of CuNC sensor. This strategy provided a novel approach to preparing MOFs-derived carbon nanoarchitectures with excellent electroanalysis performance to monitor micropollutants.

Electrochemical sensor based on N-doped carbon dots decorated with manganese oxide nanospheres for simultaneous detection of p-aminophenol and paracetamol

Nitrogen doped carbon dots were synthesized using the hydrothermal reaction of cellulose and urea, and then carbonized in a N2 atmosphere at a high temperature to prepare N-doped carbon dots decorated with manganese oxide nanospheres (N-CMOS) formed using cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and MnO. The introduction of N-CMOS resulted in a large specific surface area, abundant pores, favourable conductivity and an excellent electrocatalytic performance. A glassy carbon electrode modified with N-CMOS was used for the simultaneous identification of paracetamol (AP) and p-aminophenol (PAP) utilising differential pulse voltammetry. Under optimum conditions, the electrical sensor showed a wide linear range of 0.1-100 μM for PAP and 0.1-80 μM for AP, with detection limits of 0.0456 and 0.0303 μM (S/N = 3), respectively. The sensitivities for detecting PAP and AP were calculated as 1.615 and 1.971 μA μM-1 cm-2, respectively. The sensitivity and limit of detection (LOD) meet the requirements of detection of drug impurity limits in tablets. In addition, the sensor has been successfully applied to detect PAP and AP in paracetamol tablets. The constructed sensor not only possesses a superior repeatability, reproducibility and stability, but a relatively wide linear range, and a superior detection limit and sensitivity.

Recent Advances in Chemical Sensors Using Porphyrin-Carbon Nanostructure Hybrid Materials

Porphyrins and carbon nanomaterials are among the most widely investigated and applied compounds, both offering multiple options to modulate their optical, electronic and magnetic properties by easy and well-established synthetic manipulations. Individually, they play a leading role in the development of efficient and robust chemical sensors, where they detect a plethora of analytes of practical relevance. But even more interesting, the merging of the peculiar features of these single components into hybrid nanostructures results in novel materials with amplified sensing properties exploitable in different application fields, covering the areas of health, food, environment and so on. In this contribution, we focused on recent examples reported in literature illustrating the integration of different carbon materials (i.e., graphene, nanotubes and carbon dots) and (metallo)porphyrins in heterostructures exploited in chemical sensors operating in liquid as well as gaseous phase, with particular focus on research performed in the last four years.

Hemin-doped metal-organic frameworks based nanozyme electrochemical sensor with high stability and sensitivity for dopamine detection

This study reports a new type of artificial nanozyme based on Hemin-doped-HKUST-1 (HKUST-1, also referred to as MOF-199; a face-centered-cubic MOF containing nanochannels) as a redox mediator for the detection of dopamine (DA). Hemin-doped-HKUST-1 was successfully synthesized by one-pot hydrothermal method, which was combined with reduced graphene oxide (rGO) modified on a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) to construct a sensor (Hemin-doped HKUST-1/rGO/GCE). The morphology and structure of Hemin-doped-HKUST-1 were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM) and infrared spectra (IR) techniques. The Hemin-doped HKUST-1/rGO nanozyme showed an excellent electrocatalytic activity for DA oxidation, which is due to the enhanced Hemin activity through the formation of a metal-organic framework (MOFs) and the synergy between the Hemin-doped HKUST-1 and rGO in nanozyme. The resulted sensor exhibited a high sensitivity of 1.224 μA μM-1, with a lower detection limit of 3.27 × 10-8 M (S/N = 3) and a wide linear range of 0.03-10 μM for DA detection. In addition, due to the stabilizing effect of MOFs on heme, the sensor showed satisfactory stability and has been successfully applied to the detection of DA in serum samples, indicating that this work has potential value in clinical work.

Graphene oxide–porphyrin composite nanostructure included electrochemical sensor for catechol detection

A novel composite nanostructure (GO–Por) has been prepared via ultrasonication and exhibited enhanced electrocatalytic activity towards catechol oxidation.

Fluorometric detection of dopamine based on 3-aminophenylboronic acid-functionalized AgInZnS QDs and cells imaging

Herein, cysteine capped AgInZnS QDs (Cys-AIZS QDs) with a large stoke shift and excellent biocompatibility were synthesized by a one-step aqueous method, followed by modified with 3-aminophenylboronic acid (APBA). Dopamine (DA) as an important neurotransmitter in brain can lead to significantly decrease in the fluorescence intensity of 3-aminophenylboronic acid-functionalized Cys-AIZS QDs (APBA-AIZS QDs) in a large concentration range of 1.5-900 μM. Good linearity can be obtained in the range of 15-120 μM, with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.65 μM. Moreover, Cys-AIZS QDs and APBA-AIZS QDs were applied to living cells imaging, and Cys-AIZS QDs were applied to the co-localization with lysosomes, indicative of the feasibility of intracellular detection.

Simultaneous Voltammetric Detection of Acetaminophen and Caffeine Base on Cassava Starch—Fe3O4 Nanoparticles Modified Glassy Carbon Electrode

The new molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) membrane based on cassava starch—Fe3O4—was developed to detect acetaminophen and caffeine simultaneously with the differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) method. Cassava starch was reacted with sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) as a crosslinking agent, while acetaminophen and caffeine were added as templates. The Fe3O4 nanoparticles in the composite were added to increase the sensor’s sensitivity. The experimental results show that the ratio between cassava starch:STPP:acetaminophen/caffeine in the mixture for MIP membranes influences the sensitivity of the sensor obtained. MIP membranes with the best sensitivity is produced at a mixture ratio of 2:2:1. The sensor performance is also affected by the pH of the solution and the type of buffer solution used. The sensor works very well at pH 2 in PB solution. Sensors produced from GCE modified with MIP membrane from cassava starch—Fe3O4 with acetaminophen and caffeine as templates have linear range concentrations, respectively, at 50–2000 µM and 50–900 µM. Sensor sensitivity was 0.5306 A/M against acetaminophen and 0.4314 A/M against caffeine with Limit of Detection (LoD), respectively, 16 and 23 µM. Sensor selectivity and sensitivity are better than those without MIP and can be applied for the determination of the content of acetaminophen in headache medicine, with an accuracy of 96–99% and with Relative Standard Deviation (RSD) 0.9–2.56%.

Design of novel, simple, and inexpensive 3D printing-based miniaturized electrochemical platform containing embedded disposable detector for analytical applications

This paper describes the development of a novel, simple, and inexpensive electrochemical device containing an integrated and disposable three-electrode system for detection. The base of this platform consists on a PDMS structure containing microchannels which were prototyped using 3D-printed molds. Pencil graphite leads were inserted into these microchannels and utilized as working, counter and reference electrodes in a novel design. Morphological analysis and electrochemical experiments with benchmark redox probes were carried out in order to evaluate the performance and characterize the miniaturized device proposed. Even using inexpensive materials and a simple fabrication protocol, the electrochemical platform developed provided good repeatability and reproducibility over a low cost (ca. $2 per device), acceptable lifetime (ca. 250 voltammetric runs) and extremely reduced consumption of samples and reagents (order of µL). As proof of concept, the analytical feasibility of the platform was investigated through the simultaneous determination of dopamine (DOPA) and acetaminophen (AC). The two analytes showed linear dependence on the concentration range from 1 to 15 µM and the LODs achieved were 0.21 µM for DOPA and 0.29 µM for AC. Moreover, the platform was successfully applied on the determination of DOPA and AC in spiked blood serum and urine samples. The results obtained with the device described here were better than some reports in literature that use more costly electrodic materials and complex modification steps for the detection of the same analytes.

A carbon paste electrode modified with Al2O3-supported palladium nanoparticles for simultaneous voltammetric determination of melatonin, dopamine, and acetaminophen

The authors have modified a carbon paste electrode with Al₂O₃-supported palladium nanoparticles (PdNP@Al₂O₃) to obtain a sensor for simultaneous voltammetric determination of melatonin (MT), dopamine (DA) and acetaminophen (AC). The PdNP@Al₂O₃ was characterized by scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectra. The sensor can detect DA, AC, MT and their mixtures by giving distinct signals at working voltages of typically 236, 480 and 650 mV (vs. Ag/AgCl), respectively. Differential pulse voltammetric peak currents of DA, AC and MT increase linearly in the 50 nmol L^-1 - 1.45 mmol L^-1, 40 nmol L^-1 -1.4 mmol L^-1, and 6.0 nmol L^-1 - 1.4 mmol L^-1 concentration ranges. The limits of detection are 36.5 nmol L^-1 for DA, 36.5 nmol L^-1 for AC, and 21.6 nmol L^-1 for MT. The sensor was successfully used to detect the analytes in (spiked) human serum and drug samples. Graphical abstract Schematic presentation of Al2O3-supported palladium nanoparticles (PdNP@Al2O3) for modification of a carbon paste electrode (CPE) to develop a voltammetric sensor for the simultaneous determination of dopamine (DA), acetaminophen (AC) and melatonin (MT).

Nonenzymatic amperometric dopamine sensor based on a carbon ceramic electrode of type SiO2/C modified with Co3O4 nanoparticles

An amperometric nonenzymatic dopamine sensor has been developed. Cobalt oxide (Co₃O₄) nanoparticles were uniformly dispersed inside mesoporous SiO₂/C. A sol-gel process was used for the preparation of this mesoporous composite material (SiO₂/C). This mesoporous composite has a pore size of around 13-14 nm, a large surface area (S_BET 421 m²·g^-1) and large pore volume (0.98 cm³·g^-1) as determined by the BET technique. The material compactness was confirmed by SEM images which showing that there is no phase segregation at the magnification applied. The chemical homogeneity of the materials was confirmed by EDX mapping. The SiO₂/C/Co₃O₄ nanomaterial was pressed in desk format to fabricate a working electrode for nonenzymatic amperometric sensing of dopamine at a pH value of 7.0 and at a typical working potential of 0.25 V vs SCE. The detection limit, linear response range and sensitivity are 0.018 μmol L^-1, 10-240 μmol L^-1, and 80 μA·μmol L^-1 cm^-2, respectively. The response timé of the electrode is less than 1 s in the presence of 60 μmol L^-1 of dopamine. The sensor showed chemically stability, high sensitivity and is not interfered by other electroactive molecules present in blood. The repeatability of this sensor was evaluated as 1.9% (RSD; for n = 10 at a 40 μmol L^-1 dopamine level. Graphical abstract Schematic presentation of the preparation of a nanostructured composite of type SiO₂/C/Co₃O₄ for electrooxidative sensing of dopamine.

Golf ball-like MoS2 nanosheet arrays anchored onto carbon nanofibers for electrochemical detection of dopamine

Arrays of molybdenum(IV) disulfide nanosheets resembling the shape of golf balls (MoS₂ NSBs) were deposited on carbon nanofibers (CNFs), which are shown to enable superior electrochemical detection of dopamine without any interference by uric acid. The MoS₂ NSBs have a diameter of ∼ 2 μm and are made up of numerous bent nanosheets. MoS₂ NSBs are connected by the CNFs through the center of the balls. Figures of merit for the resulting electrode include (a) a sensitivity of 6.24 μA·μM^-1·cm^-2, (b) a low working voltage (+0.17 V vs. Ag/AgCl), and (c) a low limit of detection (36 nM at S/N = 3). The electrode is selective over uric acid, reproducible and stable. It was applied to the determination of dopamine in spiked urine samples. The recoveries at levels of 10, 20 and 40 μM of DA are 101.6, 99.8 and 107.8%. Graphical abstract Schematic presentation of the golf ball-like MoS₂ nanosheet balls/carbon nanofibers (MoS₂ NSB/CNFs) by electrospining and hydrothermal process to detect dopamine (DA).

A mechanochemically synthesized porous organic polymer derived CQD/chitosan–graphene composite film electrode for electrochemiluminescence determination of dopamine

Herein, we explore a new carbon source for preparation of carbon quantum dots (CQDs) with controllable composition using a porous organic polymer (POP) derived porous carbon via a nitric acid oxidation method. The POP used for the preparation of CQDs was synthesized by mechanochemical Friedel–Crafts alkylation under solvent free conditions. Using the as-prepared CQDs, we develop a simple and effective electrochemiluminescence (ECL) detection method for dopamine (DA) using a CQD/chitosan–graphene composite modified glassy carbon electrode (GCE). Both the electrochemical and ECL behaviors were studied in detail with ammonium persulfate as a coreactant. The complementary structure and synergistic function of the composite give the ECL sensor special properties. Apart from the high stability, it also presents good repeatability and high sensitivity to DA with a wide linear range from 0.06 to 1.6 μM. And a satisfactory detection limit of 0.028 μM (S/N = 3) was achieved for the prepared sensor. Furthermore, the ECL also shows high selectivity toward DA with an excellent interference resistance ability at a high concentration ratio of 100 (C_interference : C_DA = 100). In addition, the ECL sensor was successfully applied for effective detection and quantitative analysis of the actual dopamine in human body fluids for disease diagnosis and pathological studies.

CQDs were obtained from a POP derived porous carbon via nitric acid oxidation. CQDs/CG composite film with special properties were fabricated and used for ECL detection of DA in human body fluids.