The protective effect of 2-mercaptoethane sulfonate (MESNA) against traumatic brain injury in rats

Antioxidant and neuroprotective effects of dexpanthenol in rats induced with traumatic brain injury

Trauma-induced primary damage is followed by secondary damage, exacerbating traumatic brain injury (TBI). Dexpanthenol has been shown to protect tissues against oxidative damage in various inflammation models. This study aimed to investigate possible antioxidant and neuroprotective effects of dexpanthenol in TBI. Wistar albino male rats were randomly assigned to control (n = 16), trauma (n = 16) and dexpanthenol (500 mg/kg; n = 14) groups. TBI was induced under anesthesia by dropping a 300 g weight from 70-cm height onto the skulls of the rats. Twenty-four hours after the trauma, the rats were decapitated and myeloperoxidase (MPO) levels, luminol- and lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence (CL), malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels, and catalase (CAT) and caspase-3 activities were measured in brain tissues. Following transcardiac paraformaldehyde perfusion, histopathological damage was graded on hematoxylin-eosin-stained brain tissues. In the trauma group, MPO level, caspase-3 activity and luminol-lucigenin CL levels were elevated (p < 0.05-0.001) when compared to controls; meanwhile in the dexpanthenol group these increases were not seen (p < 0.05-0.001) and MDA levels were decreased (p < 0.05). Decreased SOD and CAT activities (p < 0.01) in the vehicle-treated TBI group were increased above control levels in the dexpanthenol group (p < 0.05-0.001). in the dexpanthenol group there was relatively less neuronal damage observed microscopically in the cortices after TBI. Dexpanthenol reduced oxidative damage, suppressed apoptosis by stimulating antioxidant systems and alleviated brain damage caused by TBI. Further experimental and clinical investigations are needed to confirm that dexpanthenol can be administered in the early stages of TBI.

Infliximab and/or MESNA alleviate doxorubicin-induced Alzheimer's disease-like pathology in rats: A new insight into TNF-α/Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway

AIMS

The current study aimed to elucidate the neurotoxic potential of DOX to induce AD-like pathology paying attention to the role of wingless-integrated/β-catenin (Wnt/β-catenin) signaling pathway. A major aim was to evaluate the efficacy of infliximab (IFX) either individually or in combination with 2-mercaptoethane sulfonate sodium (MESNA) on the DOX-induced neurotoxicity in rats.

METHODOLOGY

AD-like pathology was induced in adult male Wistar rats by intraperitoneal (i.p.) administration of DOX at a dose of 3.5 mg/kg twice a week for 3 weeks. DOX-injected rats were then treated with either INF at a single dose of 5 mg/kg i.p. (IFX group), MESNA at a dose of 160 mg/kg/day i.p. for 4 weeks (MESNA group) or their combination at the same specified doses (INF + MESNA group). At the end of the study period, behavioral assessment was performed and the brain tissue samples were harvested at sacrifice.

KEY FINDINGS

DOX-treated rats significantly exhibited AD-like brain injury, increased amyloid burden, enhanced neuroinflammation and apoptosis, and multifocal histological injury in the cerebral cortex with widespread vacuolations. IFX and MESNA significantly reversed all the aforementioned detrimental effects in the DOX-treated rats.

SIGNIFICANCE

The study has provided sufficient evidence of the potential of IFX and/or MESNA to ameliorate the DOX-induced neurotoxicity, with the best improvement observed with their combined administration. A new insight has been introduced into the critical role of Wnt/β-catenin activation.

Neuroprotective Effect of Cinnamaldehyde on Secondary Brain Injury After Traumatic Brain Injury in a Rat Model

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the possible neuroprotective effects of cinnamaldehyde (CA) on secondary brain injury after traumatic brain injury (TBI) in a rat model.

METHODS

Rats were randomly divided into 4 groups: control (n = 9), TBI (n = 9), vehicle (0.1% Tween 80; n = 8), and CA (100 mg/kg) (n = 9). TBI was induced by the weight-drop model. In brain tissues, myeloperoxidase activity and the levels of luminol-enhanced and lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence were measured. Interleukin 1β, interleukin 6, tumor necrosis factor α, tumor growth factor β, caspase-3, and cleaved caspase-3 were evaluated with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method. Brain injury was histopathologically graded after hematoxylin-eosin staining. Y-maze and novel object recognition tests were performed before TBI and within 24 hours of TBI.

RESULTS

Higher myeloperoxidase activity levels in the TBI group (P < 0.001) were suppressed in the CA group (P < 0.05). Luminol-enhanced and lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence, which were increased in the TBI group (P < 0.001, for both), were decreased in the group that received CA treatment (P < 0.001 for both). Compared with the increased histologic damage scores in the cerebral cortex and dentate gyrus of the TBI group (P < 0.001), scores of the CA group were lower (P < 0.001). Decreased number of entries and spontaneous alternation percentage in the Y-maze test of the TBI group (P < 0.05 and P < 0.01, respectively) were not evident in the CA group.

CONCLUSIONS

CA has shown neuroprotective effects by limiting neutrophil recruitment, suppressing reactive oxygen species and reducing histologic damage and acute hippocampal dysfunction.

Neuroprotective effect of selumetinib on acrolein-induced neurotoxicity

Abnormal accumulation of acrolein, an α, β unsaturated aldehyde has been reported as one pathological cause of the CNS neurodegenerative diseases. In the present study, the neuroprotective effect of selumetinib (a MEK-ERK inhibitor) on acrolein-induced neurotoxicity was investigated in vitro using primary cultured cortical neurons. Incubation of acrolein consistently increased phosphorylated ERK levels. Co-treatment of selumetinib blocked acrolein-induced ERK phosphorylation. Furthermore, selumetinib reduced acrolein-induced increases in heme oxygenase-1 (a redox-regulated chaperone protein) and its transcriptional factor, Nrf-2 as well as FDP-lysine (acrolein-lysine adducts) and α-synuclein aggregation (a pathological biomarker of neurodegeneration). Morphologically, selumetinib attenuated acrolein-induced damage in neurite outgrowth, including neuritic beading and neurite discontinuation. Moreover, selumetinib prevented acrolein-induced programmed cell death via decreasing active caspase 3 (a hallmark of apoptosis) as well as RIP (receptor-interacting protein) 1 and RIP3 (biomarkers for necroptosis). In conclusion, our study showed that selumetinib inhibited acrolein-activated Nrf-2-HO-1 pathway, acrolein-induced protein conjugation and aggregation as well as damage in neurite outgrowth and cell death, suggesting that selumetinib, a MEK-ERK inhibitor, may be a potential neuroprotective agent against acrolein-induced neurotoxicity in the CNS neurodegenerative diseases.

The Neuroprotective Effect of Mesna on Cisplatin-Induced Neurotoxicity: Behavioral, Electrophysiological, and Molecular Studies

Peripheral neuropathy and cognitive impairments following cisplatin administration may interfere with the clinical usage of the drug. Mesna is a chemoprotective agent with anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects. Our study aimed to investigate the protective effects of mesna against cisplatin-induced neurotoxicity. Neurotoxicity was induced by the administration of 2.5 mg/kg cisplatin twice a week for four consecutive weeks in male Wistar rats. The neuroprotective effect of mesna (150 mg/kg/day) was evaluated through behavioral, electrophysiological, and molecular studies. Cisplatin treatment caused passive avoidance memory impairment, increased anxiety-like behaviors, altered thermal sensitivity, and decreased muscle strength in a grip strength test. Our electrophysiological studies indicated that administration of cisplatin induced peripheral sensory neuropathy and decreased the amplitudes of the compound action potential of sensory nerves. Cisplatin administration increased MDA and 4-HNE levels and decreased anti-oxidant (SOD and GPx) enzymes. Proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β and TNF-α) and metalloproteinase-2 and 9 (MMP-2/9) were increased by cisplatin treatment. Morphological alterations were observed in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) of cisplatin-treated rats. Cognitive impairments, anxiety, muscle strength, and thermal sensitivity changes induced by cisplatin were improved with mesna treatment. The reduced conduction velocity in sensory nerves was recovered in the cisplatin + mesna group. Mesna partially alleviated redox imbalance, reduced the proinflammatory cytokines, and MMP-2/9 levels. Mesna administration also relieved the morphological changes in DRG of cisplatin-treated rats. In conclusion, our results revealed that mesna can alleviate cisplatin-induced central and peripheral nervous system toxicity. These results support the concept that chemotherapy-induced neuropathy can be partially inhibited via mesna.

A Comprehensive Review on Source, Types, Effects, Nanotechnology, Detection, and Therapeutic Management of Reactive Carbonyl Species Associated with Various Chronic Diseases

Continuous oxidation of carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids generate extremely reactive carbonyl species (RCS). Human body comprises some important RCS namely hexanal, acrolein, 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal, methylglyoxal, malondialdehyde, isolevuglandins, and 4-oxo-2- nonenal etc. These RCS damage important cellular components including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, which manifests cytotoxicity, mutagenicity, multitude of adducts and crosslinks that are connected to ageing and various chronic diseases like inflammatory disease, atherosclerosis, cerebral ischemia, diabetes, cancer, neurodegenerative diseases and cardiovascular disease. The constant prevalence of RCS in living cells suggests their importance in signal transduction and gene expression. Extensive knowledge of RCS properties, metabolism and relation with metabolic diseases would assist in development of effective approach to prevent numerous chronic diseases. Treatment approaches for RCS associated diseases involve endogenous RCS metabolizers, carbonyl metabolizing enzyme inducers, and RCS scavengers. Limited bioavailability and bio efficacy of RCS sequesters suggest importance of nanoparticles and nanocarriers. Identification of RCS and screening of compounds ability to sequester RCS employ several bioassays and analytical techniques. Present review describes in-depth study of RCS sources, types, properties, identification techniques, therapeutic approaches, nanocarriers, and their role in various diseases. This study will give an idea for therapeutic development to combat the RCS associated chronic diseases.

Inhibition of melanogenesis by sodium 2-mercaptoethanesulfonate

Sodium 2-mercaptoethanesulfonate (mesna) is a protective agent that is widely used in medicine because of its antioxidant effects. Recently, reactive oxygen species (ROS) were shown to increase pigmentation. Thus, ROS scavengers and inhibitors of ROS production may suppress melanogenesis. Forkhead box-O3a (FoxO3a) is an antimelanogenic factor that mediates ROS-induced skin pigmentation. In this study, we aimed to investigate the whitening effect of mesna and the signaling mechanism mediating this effect. Human melanoma (MNT-1) cells were used in this study. mRNA and protein expression were measured by real-time quantitative PCR and Western blotting analysis to track changes in FoxO3a-related signals induced by mesna. An immunofluorescence assay was performed to determine the nuclear translocation of FoxO3a. When MNT-1 melanoma cells were treated with mesna, melanin production and secretion decreased. These effects were accompanied by increases in FoxO3a activation and nuclear translocation, resulting in downregulation of four master genes of melanogenesis: MITF, TYR, TRP1, and TRP2. We found that mesna, an antioxidant and radical scavenger, suppresses melanin production and may therefore be a useful agent for the clinical treatment of hyperpigmentation disorders.

Neuroprotective effects of mildronate in a rat model of traumatic brain injury

OBJECTIVE

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the most common preventable causes of mortality and morbidity. Inflammation, apoptosis, oxidative stress, and ischemia are some of the important pathophysiological mechanisms underlying neuronal loss after TBI. Mildronate is demonstrated to be beneficial in various experimental models of ischemic diseases via anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective mechanisms. This study aimed to investigate possible antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiapoptotic, and neuroprotective effects of mildronate in a rat model of TBI.

METHODS

A total of 46 male rats were divided into three groups of control, saline-treated TBI, and mildronate-treated TBI. Both TBI groups were subjected to closed-head contusive weight-drop injuries followed by treatment with saline or mildronate (100 mg/kg) administered intraperitoneally. The forebrain was removed 24 h after trauma induction, the activities of myeloperoxidase (MPO) and caspase-3, levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), luminol- and lucigenin-enhanced chemiluminescence were measured, and histomorphological evaluation of cerebral tissues was performed.

RESULTS

Increased MPO and caspase-3 activities in the vehicle-treated TBI group (p < 0.001) were suppressed in the mildronate-treated TBI group (p < 0.001). Similarly, increase in luminol and lucigenin levels (p < 0.001 and p < 0.01, respectively) in the vehicle-treated TBI group were decreased in the mildronate-treated TBI group (p < 0.001). Concomitantly, in the vehicle-treated TBI group, TBI-induced decrease in SOD activity (p < 0.01) was reversed with mildronate treatment (p < 0.05). On histopathological examination, TBI-induced damage in the cerebral cortex was lesser in the mildronate-treated TBI group than that in other groups.

CONCLUSION

This study revealed for the first time that mildronate, exhibits neuroprotective effects against TBI because of its anti-inflammatory, antiapoptotic, and antioxidant activities.

Reactive Carbonyl Species Scavengers-Novel Therapeutic Approaches for Chronic Diseases

PURPOSE OF THE REVIEW

To summarize recent evidence supporting the use of reactive carbonyl species scavengers in the prevention and treatment of disease.

RECENT FINDINGS

The newly developed 2-aminomethylphenol class of scavengers shows great promise in preclinical trials for a number of diverse conditions including neurodegenerative diseases and cardiovascular disease. In addition, new studies with the thiol-based and imidazole-based scavengers have found new applications outside of adjunctive therapy for chemotherapeutics.

SUMMARY

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by cells and tissues act as signaling molecules and as cytotoxic agents to defend against pathogens, but ROS also cause collateral damage to vital cellular components. The polyunsaturated fatty acyl chains of phospholipids in the cell membranes are particularly vulnerable to damaging peroxidation by ROS. Evidence suggests that the breakdown of these peroxidized lipids to reactive carbonyls species plays a critical role in many chronic diseases. Antioxidants that abrogate ROS-induced formation of reactive carbonyl species also abrogate normal ROS signaling and thus exert both beneficial and adverse functional effects. The use of scavengers of reactive dicarbonyl species represent an alternative therapeutic strategy to potentially mitigate the adverse effects of ROS without abrogating normal signaling by ROS. In this review, we focus on three classes of reactive carbonyl species scavengers: thiol-based scavengers (2-mercaptoethanesulfonate and amifostine), imidazole-based scavengers (carnosine and its analogs), and 2-aminomethylphenols-based scavengers (pyridoxamine, 2-hydroxybenzylamine, and 5'-O-pentyl-pyridoxamine) that are either undergoing pre-clinical studies, advancing to clinical trials, or are already in clinical use.

Does Decorin Protect Neuronal Tissue via Its Antioxidant and Antiinflammatory Activity from Traumatic Brain Injury? An Experimental Study

BACKGROUND

The development of secondary brain injury via oxidative stress after traumatic brain injury (TBI) is well known. Decorin (DC) inactivates transforming growth factor β1, complement system, and tumor necrosis factor α, which are related to oxidative stress and apoptosis. Consequently, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the role of DC on TBI.

METHODS

A total of 24 male rats were used and divided into 4 groups as follows; control, trauma, DC, and methylprednisolone (MP). The trauma, DC, and MP groups were subjected to closed-head contusive weight-drop injuries. Rats received treatment with intraperitoneal saline, DC, or MP, respectively. All the animals were killed at the 24th hour after trauma and brain tissues were extracted. The oxidant/antioxidant parameters (malondialdehyde, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and NO) and caspase 3 in the cerebral tissue were analyzed, and histomorphologic evaluation of the cerebral tissue was performed.

RESULTS

Levels of malondialdehyde, NO, and activity of caspase 3 were significantly reduced, and in addition glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase levels were increased in the DC and MP groups compared with the trauma group. The pathology scores and the percentage of degenerated neurons were statistically lower in the DC and MP groups than in the trauma group.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the present study showed that DC inactivates transforming growth factor β1 and protects the brain tissue and neuronal cells after TBI.

Antioxidant and antiapoptotic effects of darbepoetin-α against traumatic brain injury in rats

INTRODUCTION

In this study, we tried to determine whether darbepoetin-α would protect the brain from oxidative stress and apoptosis in a rat traumatic brain injury model.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The animals were randomized into four groups; group 1 (sham), group 2 (trauma), group 3 (darbepoetin α), group 4 (methylprednisolone). In the sham group only the skin incision was performed. In all the other groups, a moderate traumatic brain injury modelwas applied.

RESULTS

Following trauma both glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase levels decreased (p < 0.001 for both); darbepoetin-α increased the activity of both antioxidant enzymes (p = 0.001 and p < 0.001 respectively). Trauma caused significant elevation in the nitric oxide synthetase and xanthine oxidase levels (p < 0.001 for both). Administration of darbepoetin-α significantly decreased the levels of nitric oxide synthetase and xanthine oxidase (p < 0.001 for both). Also, trauma caused significant elevation in the nitric oxide levels (p < 0.001); darbepoetin-α administration caused statistically significant reduction in the nitric oxide levels (p < 0.001). On the other hand, malondialdehyde levels were increased following trauma (p < 0.001), and darbepoetin α significantly reduced the malondialdehyde levels (p < 0.001). Due to the elevated apoptotic activity following the injury, caspase-3 activity increased significantly. Darbepoetin-α treatment significantly inhibited apoptosis by lowering the caspase-3 activity (p < 0.001). In the darbepoetin group, histopathological score was lower than the trauma group (p = 0.016).

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, darbepoetin-α was shown to be at least as effective as methylprednisolone in protecting brain from oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation and apoptosis.

The effects of sodium-2-mercaptoethanesulfonate application on the neural and neurovascular tissues: An experimental animal study

BACKGROUND

Sodium-2-mercaptoethanesulfonate (MESNA) is a protective agent that is also used as "a chemical dissector" in various surgical fields. The aim of this study is to evaluate the toxic effects of MESNA on neural and neurovascular structures based on a morphological analysis and examine its safety in neurotological applications.

METHODS

Three groups of guinea pigs were used as subjects. MESNA solution (50 and 100%) and saline solution were applied to the subarachnoid space over the brain tissue via a middle fossa approach of study and control groups, respectively. Effects of MESNA were assessed by means of light microscope. McNemar Chi-square test was used to evaluate the histopathological findings. Statistical significance of P < 0.05 was taken as criterion.

RESULTS

No morphological changes were observed on vascular and neural structures in the study groups in both concentrations, compared to the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

On a morphological basis, a single application of MESNA does not cause any morphological changes that indicate a toxicity in neural and neurovascular structures.

Neuroprotective effects of rosuvastatin against traumatic spinal cord injury in rats

Rosuvastatin, which is a potent statin, has never been studied in traumatic spinal cord injury. The aim of this study was to investigate whether rosuvastatin treatment could protect the spinal cord after experimental spinal cord injury. Rats were randomized into the following five groups of eight animals each: control, sham, trauma, rosuvastatin, and methylprednisolone. In the control group, no surgical intervention was performed. In the sham group, only laminectomy was performed. In all the other groups, the spinal cord trauma model was created by the occlusion of the spinal cord with an aneurysm clip. In the spinal cord tissue, caspase-3 activity, tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels, myeloperoxidase activity, malondialdehyde levels, nitric oxide levels, and superoxide dismutase levels were analyzed. Histopathological and ultrastructural evaluations were also performed. Neurological evaluation was performed using the Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan locomotor scale and the inclined-plane test.After traumatic spinal cord injury, increases in caspase-3 activity, tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels, myeloperoxidase activity, malondialdehyde levels, and nitric oxide levels were detected. In contrast, the superoxide dismutase levels were decreased. After the administration of rosuvastatin, decreases were observed in the tissue caspase-3 activity, tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels, myeloperoxidase activity, malondialdehyde levels, and nitric oxide levels. In contrast, tissue superoxide dismutase levels were increased. Furthermore, rosuvastatin treatment showed improved results concerning the histopathological scores, the ultrastructural score and the functional tests. Biochemical, histopathological, ultrastructural analysis and functional tests revealed that rosuvastatin exhibits meaningful neuroprotective effects against spinal cord injury.

Intracranial injection of recombinant stromal-derived factor-1 alpha (SDF-1α) attenuates traumatic brain injury in rats

OBJECTIVE

This study was conducted to investigate the role of stromal-derived factor-1 alpha (SDF-1α) in a secondary brain injury after traumatic brain injury (TBI) in rats, and to further elucidate its underlying regulatory mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley rats underwent TBI for 30 min, and then received intracranial injections of recombinant SDF-1α, SDF-1α antibody, or saline as a vehicle control. At 24 h after TBI, brain tissues from the experimental animals were subjected to histology, immunohistochemistry, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and western blot analyses.

RESULTS

TBI-induced brain edema and blood-brain barrier disruption were ameliorated by post-injury injections of SDF-1α. TBI-induced neuronal degradation and apoptosis, accompanied by increased cleaved caspase-3, cleaved PARP and Bax, and decreased Bcl-2 were found to be attenuated by SDF-1α injection. Nitric oxide (NO) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) levels decreased in SDF-1α treated animals after TBI. SDF-1α repressed inflammatory responses by inhibiting the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. However, neutralizing the effect of SDF-1α with its antibody abolished these therapeutic alterations in TBI animals. Importantly, SDF-1α attenuated the brain lesion by affecting the ERK and NF-κB signaling pathways after mechanical head trauma in rats.

CONCLUSIONS

SDF-1α ameliorates mechanical trauma-induced pathological changes via its anti-apoptotic and anti-inflammatory action in the brain.