A history of dopamine agonists. From the physiology and pharmacology of dopamine to therapies for prolactinomas and Parkinson’s disease – a subjective view

The complex molecular pharmacology of the dopamine D2 receptor: Implications for pramipexole, ropinirole, and rotigotine

With L-DOPA, dopamine agonists such as pramipexole, ropinirole and rotigotine constitute key therapeutic options for the management of motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease. These compounds exert their beneficial effect on motor behaviours by activating dopamine D₂-class receptors and thereby compensating for the declining dopaminergic transmission in the dorsal striatum. Despite a strong similarity in their mechanism of action, these three dopamine agonists present distinct clinical profiles, putatively underpinned by differences in their pharmacological properties. In this context, this review aims at contributing to close the gap between clinical observations and data from molecular neuropharmacology by exploring the properties of pramipexole, ropinirole and rotigotine from both the clinical and molecular perspectives. Indeed, this review first summarizes and compares the clinical features of these three dopamine agonists, and then explores their binding profiles at the different dopamine receptor subtypes. Moreover, the signalling profiles of pramipexole, ropinirole and rotigotine at the D₂ receptor are recapitulated, with a focus on biased signalling and the potential therapeutic implications. Overall, this review aims at providing a unifying framework of interpretation for both clinicians and fundamental pharmacologists interested in a deep understanding of the pharmacological properties of pramipexole, ropinirole and rotigotine.

Fundamental and clinical neuropharmacology, a terra incognita with constantly expanding frontiers

Neuropharmacology is the science that studies the effects of drugs on the central nervous system. Examining the recent history of neuropharmacology allows us to identify future challenges and to project into the future. The contemporary history of neuropharmacology begins with the empirical use of psychotropic alkaloids in barbiturate preparations. Then the discovery of neuroleptics in the 1950s truly opened up the field of pharmacological science, with psychopharmacological clinical exploration in psychiatry, complemented by the contributions of neurochemists and biochemists discovering and exploring neurotransmission. These studies also contributed to the development of dopaminergic and serotonergic drugs used in neurology. The more recent period brought the advent of neuropsychopharmacology, sharing therapeutic targets in neurology and psychiatry on the one hand, and a translational research approach on the other. Moreover, the pharmacology of brain drugs is still a growing discipline in 2020. Despite emerging pharmacological concepts (biased agonists, glial targeting, epigenetic therapeutics, etc.), entire areas of brain-based therapeutics need to be renewed, particularly in psychiatry, offering great challenges to a new generation of pharmacologists and clinicians.

[The role of inhibitors of COMT and MAO-B in the therapy of Parkinson's disease]

Inhibitors of COMT and MAO-B are well established in the pharmacotherapy of Parkinson's disease (PD). MAO-B inhibitors are used as monotherapy as well as in combination with levodopa, whereas COMT inhibitors exert their effects only in conjungtion with levodopa. Both classes of compounds prolong the response duration of levodopa and optimise its clinical benefit. As a result, the ON-times are prolonged significantly. In the past, MAO-B inhibitors were also adminstered for neuroprotection; however, despite convincing scientific reasoning in support of neuroprotective effects, these could not be substantiated in clinical studies performed so far.

Role of dopamine receptor agonists in the treatment of early Parkinson's disease

In the last two decades, the usefulness of dopamine receptor agonists in the symptomatic treatment of Parkinson' disease (PD) has been demonstrated in many randomized controlled clinical trials. The initial role of such compounds as an adjunctive therapy to L-dopa to improve motor fluctuations has now expanded to the treatment of early PD as initial monotherapy. The rationale for the use of dopamine receptor agonists in early disease is to delay or reduce the incidence of motor complications resulting from long-term L-dopa therapy, probably by virtue of less pulsatile stimulation of postsynaptic dopamine receptors. Indeed, controlled trials with both ergot and non-ergot dopamine receptor agonists, such as cabergoline, pergolide, pramipexole and ropinirole, have shown lower risk of motor fluctuations and dyskinesias than with L-dopa, when used as monotherapy in early PD patients. The benefit of agonists in preventing motor complications is, however, balanced by a smaller effect on motor symptoms compared with L-dopa. Moreover, a greater incidence of side-effects, particularly somnolence, hallucinations and leg oedema, occurs with dopamine receptor agonists. Because of the risk of fibrotic reactions, ergot derivatives (bromocriptine, cabergoline, and pergolide) are not recommended as first-line antiparkinsonian medication. In younger patients, who are usually more prone to developing L-dopa-induced motor complications, the initial treatment with dopamine receptor agonists can be recommended. Further pharmacological refinement of PD management with these drugs may result from new formulations of old drugs, such as once-daily prolonged-release ropinirole, or new agonists, such as the rotigotine patch, that can allow more continuous dopaminergic stimulation and improve patient compliance with the drug treatment. Theoretically, another advantage of dopamine receptor agonists is the potential for a neuroprotective effect, through many different mechanisms of actions. Preliminary controlled trials with pramipexole and ropinirole, although encouraging, did not provide conclusive proof of the disease-modifying effect of dopamine receptor agonists; large controlled clinical trials are now underway and results are expected soon.