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Claverie S, Hoareau M, Chéhida SB, Filloux D, Varsani A, Roumagnac P, Martin DP, Lett JM, Lefeuvre P. Metagenomics reveals the structure of Mastrevirus-host interaction network within an agro-ecosystem. Virus Evol 2023; 9:vead043. [PMID: 37475836 PMCID: PMC10354507 DOI: 10.1093/ve/vead043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Revised: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/22/2023] Open
Abstract
As highly pervasive parasites that sometimes cause disease, viruses are likely major components of all natural ecosystems. An important step towards both understanding the precise ecological roles of viruses and determining how natural communities of viral species are assembled and evolve is obtaining full descriptions of viral diversity and distributions at ecosystem scales. Here, we focused on obtaining such 'community-scale' data for viruses in a single genus. We chose the genus Mastrevirus (family Geminiviridae), members of which have predominantly been found infecting uncultivated grasses (family Poaceae) throughout the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. We sampled over 3 years, 2,884 individual Poaceae plants belonging to thirty different species within a 2-ha plot which included cultivated and uncultivated areas on the island of Reunion. Mastreviruses were found in ∼8 per cent of the samples, of which 96 per cent did not have any discernible disease symptoms. The multitude of host-virus associations that we uncovered reveals both the plant species that most commonly host mastreviruses and the mastrevirus species (such as maize streak virus and maize streak Reunion virus) that have especially large host ranges. Our findings are consistent with the hypothesis that perennial plant species capable of hosting years-long mixed mastrevirus infections likely play a disproportionately important role in the generation of inter-species and inter-strain mastrevirus recombinants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sohini Claverie
- CIRAD, UMR PVBMT, F-97410 St Pierre, La Réunion, France
- Université de La Réunion, UMR PVBMT, F-97410 St Pierre, La Réunion, France
| | | | | | - Denis Filloux
- CIRAD, UMR PHIM, Montpellier F-34090, France
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Université de Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, Institut Agro, IRD, Montpellier 34090, France
| | | | - Philippe Roumagnac
- CIRAD, UMR PHIM, Montpellier F-34090, France
- PHIM Plant Health Institute, Université de Montpellier, CIRAD, INRAE, Institut Agro, IRD, Montpellier 34090, France
| | - Darren P Martin
- Computational Biology Division, Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory 7925, South Africa
| | | | - Pierre Lefeuvre
- CIRAD, UMR PVBMT, F-97410 St Pierre, La Réunion, France
- The Biodesign Center for Fundamental and Applied Microbiomics, Center for Evolution and Medicine, School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA
- Structural Biology Research Unit, Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7700, South Africa
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Kraberger S, Saumtally S, Pande D, Khoodoo MHR, Dhayan S, Dookun-Saumtally A, Shepherd DN, Hartnady P, Atkinson R, Lakay FM, Hanson B, Redhi D, Monjane AL, Windram OP, Walters M, Oluwafemi S, Michel-Lett J, Lefeuvre P, Martin DP, Varsani A. Molecular diversity, geographic distribution and host range of monocot-infecting mastreviruses in Africa and surrounding islands. Virus Res 2017; 238:171-178. [PMID: 28687345 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2017.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Revised: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 07/01/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Maize streak virus (MSV), an important pathogen of maize in Africa, is the most extensively studied member of the Mastrevirus genus in the family Geminiviridae. Comparatively little is known about other monocot-infecting African mastreviruses, most of which infect uncultivated grasses. Here we determine the complete sequences of 134 full African mastrevirus genomes from predominantly uncultivated Poaceae species. Based on established taxonomic guidelines for the genus Mastrevirus, these genomes could be classified as belonging to the species Maize streak virus, Eragrostis minor streak virus, Maize streak Reunion virus, Panicum streak virus, Sugarcane streak Reunion virus and Sugarcane streak virus. Together with all other publicly available African monocot-infecting mastreviruses, the 134 new isolates extend the known geographical distributions of many of these species, including MSV which we found infecting Digitaria sp. on the island of Grand Canaria: the first definitive discovery of any African monocot-infecting mastreviruses north-west of the Saharan desert. These new isolates also extend the known host ranges of both African mastrevirus species and the strains within these. Most notable was the discovery of MSV-C isolates infecting maize which suggests that this MSV strain, which had previously only ever been found infecting uncultivated species, may be in the process of becoming adapted to this important staple crop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Kraberger
- The Biodesign Center for Fundamental and Applied Microbiomics, Center for Evolution and Medicine, School of Life sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-5001, USA; School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, 8140, New Zealand
| | - Salem Saumtally
- Mauritius Sugarcane Industry Research Institute, Réduit, Mauritius
| | - Daniel Pande
- Department of Botany, Maseno University, P.O. Box 333, Maseno, Kenya; Department of Biological and Biomedical Science and Technology, Laikipia University, P.O. Box 1100-20300, Nyahururu, Kenya
| | | | - Sonalall Dhayan
- Mauritius Sugarcane Industry Research Institute, Réduit, Mauritius
| | | | - Dionne N Shepherd
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Penelope Hartnady
- Computational Biology Group, Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, 7925, South Africa
| | - Richard Atkinson
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Francisco M Lakay
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Britt Hanson
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Devasha Redhi
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Adérito L Monjane
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, Cape Town, South Africa; Department of Immunology, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Pb 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo, Norway
| | - Oliver P Windram
- Grand Challenges in Ecosystems & the Environment, Imperial College London, Silwood Park Campus, Buckhurst Road, SL5 7PY Ascot, Berks, UK
| | - Matthew Walters
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, 8140, New Zealand
| | - Sunday Oluwafemi
- Department of Crop Production, Soil and Environmental Management, Bowen University, P.M.B. 284, Iwo, Osun State, Nigeria
| | - Jean Michel-Lett
- CIRAD, UMR PVBMT, Pôle de Protection des Plantes, 7 Chemin de l'IRAT, 97410 Saint-Pierre, Ile de La Réunion, France
| | - Pierre Lefeuvre
- CIRAD, UMR PVBMT, Pôle de Protection des Plantes, 7 Chemin de l'IRAT, 97410 Saint-Pierre, Ile de La Réunion, France
| | - Darren P Martin
- Computational Biology Group, Institute of Infectious Diseases and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, 7925, South Africa.
| | - Arvind Varsani
- The Biodesign Center for Fundamental and Applied Microbiomics, Center for Evolution and Medicine, School of Life sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-5001, USA; School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, 8140, New Zealand; Structural Biology Research Unit, Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, University of Cape Town, Observatory, Cape Town, South Africa.
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Identification of novel Bromus- and Trifolium-associated circular DNA viruses. Arch Virol 2015; 160:1303-11. [PMID: 25701210 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-015-2358-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 01/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The genomes of a large number of highly diverse novel circular DNA viruses from a wide range of sources have been characterised in recent years, including circular single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) viruses that share similarities with plant-infecting ssDNA viruses of the family Geminiviridae. Here, we describe six novel circular DNA viral genomes that encode replication-associated (Rep) proteins that are most closely related to those of either geminiviruses or gemycircularviruses (a new group of ssDNA viruses that are closely related to geminiviruses). Four possible viral genomes were recovered from Bromus hordeaceus sampled in New Zealand, and two were recovered from B. hordeaceus and Trifolium resupinatum sampled in France. Two of the viral genomes from New Zealand (one from the North Island and one from the South Island each) share >99 % sequence identity, and two genomes recovered from B. hordeaceus and T. resupinatum sampled in France share 74 % identity. All of the viral genomes that were recovered were found to have a major open reading frame on both their complementary and virion-sense strands, one of which likely encodes a Rep and the other a capsid protein. Although future infectivity studies are needed to identify the host range of these viruses, this is the first report of circular DNA viruses associated with grasses in New Zealand.
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Oluwafemi S, Kraberger S, Shepherd DN, Martin DP, Varsani A. A high degree of African streak virus diversity within Nigerian maize fields includes a new mastrevirus from Axonopus compressus. Arch Virol 2014; 159:2765-70. [PMID: 24796552 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-014-2090-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2014] [Accepted: 04/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The A-strain of maize streak virus (MSV-A; genus Mastrevirus, family Geminiviridae), the causal agent of maize streak disease, places a major constraint on maize production throughout sub-Saharan Africa. In West-African countries such as Nigeria, where maize is not cultivated year-round, this MSV strain is forced to overwinter in non-maize hosts. In order to both identify uncultivated grasses that might harbour MSV-A during the winter season and further characterise the diversity of related maize-associated streak viruses, we collected maize and grass samples displaying streak symptoms in a number of Nigerian maize fields. From these we isolated and cloned 18 full mastrevirus genomes (seven from maize and 11 from various wild grass species). Although only MSV-A isolates were obtained from maize, both MSV-A and MSV-F isolates were obtained from Digitaria ciliaris. Four non-MSV African streak viruses were also sampled, including sugarcane streak Reunion virus and Urochloa streak virus (USV) from Eleusine coacana, USV from Urochloa sp., maize streak Reunion virus (MSRV) from both Setaria barbata and Rottboellia sp., and a novel highly divergent mastrevirus from Axonopus compressus, which we have tentatively named Axonopus compressus streak virus (ACSV). Besides the discovery of this new mastrevirus species and expanding the known geographical and host ranges of MSRV, we have added D. ciliaris to the list of uncultivated species within which Nigerian MSV-A isolates are possibly able to overwinter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunday Oluwafemi
- Department of Crop Production, Soil and Environmental Management, Bowen University, P.M.B. 284, Iwo, Osun State, Nigeria
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Rosario K, Padilla-Rodriguez M, Kraberger S, Stainton D, Martin DP, Breitbart M, Varsani A. Discovery of a novel mastrevirus and alphasatellite-like circular DNA in dragonflies (Epiprocta) from Puerto Rico. Virus Res 2013; 171:231-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2012.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2012] [Revised: 10/14/2012] [Accepted: 10/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Shepherd DN, Martin DP, Van Der Walt E, Dent K, Varsani A, Rybicki EP. Maize streak virus: an old and complex 'emerging' pathogen. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2010; 11:1-12. [PMID: 20078771 PMCID: PMC6640477 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2009.00568.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Maize streak virus (MSV; Genus Mastrevirus, Family Geminiviridae) occurs throughout Africa, where it causes what is probably the most serious viral crop disease on the continent. It is obligately transmitted by as many as six leafhopper species in the Genus Cicadulina, but mainly by C. mbila Naudé and C. storeyi. In addition to maize, it can infect over 80 other species in the Family Poaceae. Whereas 11 strains of MSV are currently known, only the MSV-A strain is known to cause economically significant streak disease in maize. Severe maize streak disease (MSD) manifests as pronounced, continuous parallel chlorotic streaks on leaves, with severe stunting of the affected plant and, usuallly, a failure to produce complete cobs or seed. Natural resistance to MSV in maize, and/or maize infections caused by non-maize-adapted MSV strains, can result in narrow, interrupted streaks and no obvious yield losses. MSV epidemiology is primarily governed by environmental influences on its vector species, resulting in erratic epidemics every 3-10 years. Even in epidemic years, disease incidences can vary from a few infected plants per field, with little associated yield loss, to 100% infection rates and complete yield loss. TAXONOMY The only virus species known to cause MSD is MSV, the type member of the Genus Mastrevirus in the Family Geminiviridae. In addition to the MSV-A strain, which causes the most severe form of streak disease in maize, 10 other MSV strains (MSV-B to MSV-K) are known to infect barley, wheat, oats, rye, sugarcane, millet and many wild, mostly annual, grass species. Seven other mastrevirus species, many with host and geographical ranges partially overlapping those of MSV, appear to infect primarily perennial grasses. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES MSV and all related grass mastreviruses have single-component, circular, single-stranded DNA genomes of approximately 2700 bases, encapsidated in 22 x 38-nm geminate particles comprising two incomplete T = 1 icosahedra, with 22 pentameric capsomers composed of a single 32-kDa capsid protein. Particles are generally stable in buffers of pH 4-8. DISEASE SYMPTOMS In infected maize plants, streak disease initially manifests as minute, pale, circular spots on the lowest exposed portion of the youngest leaves. The only leaves that develop symptoms are those formed after infection, with older leaves remaining healthy. As the disease progresses, newer leaves emerge containing streaks up to several millimetres in length along the leaf veins, with primary veins being less affected than secondary or tertiary veins. The streaks are often fused laterally, appearing as narrow, broken, chlorotic stripes, which may extend over the entire length of severely affected leaves. Lesion colour generally varies from white to yellow, with some virus strains causing red pigmentation on maize leaves and abnormal shoot and flower bunching in grasses. Reduced photosynthesis and increased respiration usually lead to a reduction in leaf length and plant height; thus, maize plants infected at an early stage become severely stunted, producing undersized, misshapen cobs or giving no yield at all. Yield loss in susceptible maize is directly related to the time of infection: infected seedlings produce no yield or are killed, whereas plants infected at later times are proportionately less affected. DISEASE CONTROL Disease avoidance can be practised by only planting maize during the early season when viral inoculum loads are lowest. Leafhopper vectors can also be controlled with insecticides such as carbofuran. However, the development and use of streak-resistant cultivars is probably the most effective and economically viable means of preventing streak epidemics. Naturally occurring tolerance to MSV (meaning that, although plants become systemically infected, they do not suffer serious yield losses) has been found, which has primarily been attributed to a single gene, msv-1. However, other MSV resistance genes also exist and improved resistance has been achieved by concentrating these within individual maize genotypes. Whereas true MSV immunity (meaning that plants cannot be symptomatically infected by the virus) has been achieved in lines that include multiple small-effect resistance genes together with msv-1, it has proven difficult to transfer this immunity into commercial maize genotypes. An alternative resistance strategy using genetic engineering is currently being investigated in South Africa. USEFUL WEBSITES http://www.mcb.uct.ac.za/MSV/mastrevirus.htm; http://www.danforthcenter.org/iltab/geminiviridae/geminiaccess/mastrevirus/Mastrevirus.htm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dionne N Shepherd
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, PB Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa.
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Varsani A, Monjane AL, Donaldson L, Oluwafemi S, Zinga I, Komba EK, Plakoutene D, Mandakombo N, Mboukoulida J, Semballa S, Briddon RW, Markham PG, Lett JM, Lefeuvre P, Rybicki EP, Martin DP. Comparative analysis of Panicum streak virus and Maize streak virus diversity, recombination patterns and phylogeography. Virol J 2009; 6:194. [PMID: 19903330 PMCID: PMC2777162 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-6-194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2009] [Accepted: 11/10/2009] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Panicum streak virus (PanSV; Family Geminiviridae; Genus Mastrevirus) is a close relative of Maize streak virus (MSV), the most serious viral threat to maize production in Africa. PanSV and MSV have the same leafhopper vector species, largely overlapping natural host ranges and similar geographical distributions across Africa and its associated Indian Ocean Islands. Unlike MSV, however, PanSV has no known economic relevance. Results Here we report on 16 new PanSV full genome sequences sampled throughout Africa and use these together with others in public databases to reveal that PanSV and MSV populations in general share very similar patterns of genetic exchange and geographically structured diversity. A potentially important difference between the species, however, is that the movement of MSV strains throughout Africa is apparently less constrained than that of PanSV strains. Interestingly the MSV-A strain which causes maize streak disease is apparently the most mobile of all the PanSV and MSV strains investigated. Conclusion We therefore hypothesize that the generally increased mobility of MSV relative to other closely related species such as PanSV, may have been an important evolutionary step in the eventual emergence of MSV-A as a serious agricultural pathogen. The GenBank accession numbers for the sequences reported in this paper are GQ415386-GQ415401
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Affiliation(s)
- Arvind Varsani
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Observatory, Cape Town 7925, South Africa
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A novel sugarcane-infecting mastrevirus from South Africa. Arch Virol 2009; 154:1699-703. [DOI: 10.1007/s00705-009-0490-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2009] [Accepted: 08/07/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Martin DP, Shepherd DN. The epidemiology, economic impact and control of maize streak disease. Food Secur 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/s12571-009-0023-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Varsani A, Shepherd DN, Monjane AL, Owor BE, Erdmann JB, Rybicki EP, Peterschmitt M, Briddon RW, Markham PG, Oluwafemi S, Windram OP, Lefeuvre P, Lett JM, Martin DP. Recombination, decreased host specificity and increased mobility may have driven the emergence of maize streak virus as an agricultural pathogen. J Gen Virol 2008; 89:2063-2074. [PMID: 18753214 PMCID: PMC2886952 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.2008/003590-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2008] [Accepted: 06/17/2008] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Maize streak virus (MSV; family Geminiviridae, genus Mastrevirus), the causal agent of maize streak disease, ranks amongst the most serious biological threats to food security in subSaharan Africa. Although five distinct MSV strains have been currently described, only one of these - MSV-A - causes severe disease in maize. Due primarily to their not being an obvious threat to agriculture, very little is known about the 'grass-adapted' MSV strains, MSV-B, -C, -D and -E. Since comparing the genetic diversities, geographical distributions and natural host ranges of MSV-A with the other MSV strains could provide valuable information on the epidemiology, evolution and emergence of MSV-A, we carried out a phylogeographical analysis of MSVs found in uncultivated indigenous African grasses. Amongst the 83 new MSV genomes presented here, we report the discovery of six new MSV strains (MSV-F to -K). The non-random recombination breakpoint distributions detectable with these and other available mastrevirus sequences partially mirror those seen in begomoviruses, implying that the forces shaping these breakpoint patterns have been largely conserved since the earliest geminivirus ancestors. We present evidence that the ancestor of all MSV-A variants was the recombinant progeny of ancestral MSV-B and MSV-G/-F variants. While it remains unknown whether recombination influenced the emergence of MSV-A in maize, our discovery that MSV-A variants may both move between and become established in different regions of Africa with greater ease, and infect more grass species than other MSV strains, goes some way towards explaining why MSV-A is such a successful maize pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arvind Varsani
- Electron Microscope Unit, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
| | - Dionne N. Shepherd
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
| | - Adérito L. Monjane
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
| | - Betty E. Owor
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
| | - Julia B. Erdmann
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
- Institute of Biology, Department of Molecular Biology and Plant Virology, University of Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring 57, D-70550 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Edward P. Rybicki
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, Cape Town 7701, South Africa
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Anzio Road, Observatory, Cape Town 7925, South Africa
| | - Michel Peterschmitt
- CIRAD, UMR BGPI, TA A54/K, Campus International de Baillarguet, 34398 Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Rob W. Briddon
- National Institute for Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, Jhang Road, PO Box 577, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Peter G. Markham
- Department of Disease and Stress Biology, John Innes Centre, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Sunday Oluwafemi
- Department of Crop, Soil and Environmental Management, Bowen University, PMB 284, Iwo, Osun State, Nigeria
| | - Oliver P. Windram
- Warwick HRI Biology Centre, University of Warwick, Wellesbourne CV35 9EF, UK
| | - Pierre Lefeuvre
- CIRAD, UMR 53 PVBMT CIRAD-Université de la Réunion, Pôle de Protection des Plantes, Ligne Paradis, 97410 Saint Pierre, La Réunion, France
| | - Jean-Michel Lett
- CIRAD, UMR 53 PVBMT CIRAD-Université de la Réunion, Pôle de Protection des Plantes, Ligne Paradis, 97410 Saint Pierre, La Réunion, France
| | - Darren P. Martin
- Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Anzio Road, Observatory, Cape Town 7925, South Africa
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