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Quirino A, Marascio N, Branda F, Ciccozzi A, Romano C, Locci C, Azzena I, Pascale N, Pavia G, Matera G, Casu M, Sanna D, Giovanetti M, Ceccarelli G, Alaimo di Loro P, Ciccozzi M, Scarpa F, Maruotti A. Viral Hepatitis: Host Immune Interaction, Pathogenesis and New Therapeutic Strategies. Pathogens 2024; 13:766. [PMID: 39338957 PMCID: PMC11435051 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13090766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2024] [Revised: 08/30/2024] [Accepted: 09/02/2024] [Indexed: 09/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Viral hepatitis is a major cause of liver illness worldwide. Despite advances in the understanding of these infections, the pathogenesis of hepatitis remains a complex process driven by intricate interactions between hepatitis viruses and host cells at the molecular level. This paper will examine in detail the dynamics of these host-pathogen interactions, highlighting the key mechanisms that regulate virus entry into the hepatocyte, their replication, evasion of immune responses, and induction of hepatocellular damage. The unique strategies employed by different hepatitis viruses, such as hepatitis B, C, D, and E viruses, to exploit metabolic and cell signaling pathways to their advantage will be discussed. At the same time, the innate and adaptive immune responses put in place by the host to counter viral infection will be analyzed. Special attention will be paid to genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors that modulate individual susceptibility to different forms of viral hepatitis. In addition, this work will highlight the latest findings on the mechanisms of viral persistence leading to the chronic hepatitis state and the potential implications for the development of new therapeutic strategies. Fully understanding the complex host-pathogen interactions in viral hepatitis is crucial to identifying new therapeutic targets, developing more effective approaches for treatment, and shedding light on the mechanisms underlying progression to more advanced stages of liver damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Quirino
- Unit of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Health Sciences, “Magna Græcia” University of Catanzaro “Renato Dulbecco” Teaching Hospital, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy; (A.Q.); (N.M.); (G.P.); (G.M.)
| | - Nadia Marascio
- Unit of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Health Sciences, “Magna Græcia” University of Catanzaro “Renato Dulbecco” Teaching Hospital, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy; (A.Q.); (N.M.); (G.P.); (G.M.)
| | - Francesco Branda
- Unit of Medical Statistics and Molecular Epidemiology, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, 00128 Rome, Italy; (C.R.); (M.C.)
| | - Alessandra Ciccozzi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (A.C.); (C.L.); (D.S.); (F.S.)
| | - Chiara Romano
- Unit of Medical Statistics and Molecular Epidemiology, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, 00128 Rome, Italy; (C.R.); (M.C.)
| | - Chiara Locci
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (A.C.); (C.L.); (D.S.); (F.S.)
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (I.A.); (N.P.); (M.C.)
| | - Ilenia Azzena
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (I.A.); (N.P.); (M.C.)
| | - Noemi Pascale
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (I.A.); (N.P.); (M.C.)
- Department of Chemical Physical Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy
| | - Grazia Pavia
- Unit of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Health Sciences, “Magna Græcia” University of Catanzaro “Renato Dulbecco” Teaching Hospital, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy; (A.Q.); (N.M.); (G.P.); (G.M.)
| | - Giovanni Matera
- Unit of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Health Sciences, “Magna Græcia” University of Catanzaro “Renato Dulbecco” Teaching Hospital, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy; (A.Q.); (N.M.); (G.P.); (G.M.)
| | - Marco Casu
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (I.A.); (N.P.); (M.C.)
| | - Daria Sanna
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (A.C.); (C.L.); (D.S.); (F.S.)
| | - Marta Giovanetti
- Department of Sciences and Technologies for Sustainable Development and One Health, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, 00128 Rome, Italy;
- Instituto René Rachou, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte 30190-002, MG, Brazil
- Climate Amplified Diseases and Epidemics (CLIMADE), Brasilia 70070-130, GO, Brazil
| | - Giancarlo Ceccarelli
- Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Policlinico Umberto I, Sapienza University of Rome, 00161 Rome, Italy;
| | | | - Massimo Ciccozzi
- Unit of Medical Statistics and Molecular Epidemiology, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, 00128 Rome, Italy; (C.R.); (M.C.)
| | - Fabio Scarpa
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy; (A.C.); (C.L.); (D.S.); (F.S.)
| | - Antonello Maruotti
- Department GEPLI, Libera Università Maria Ss Assunta, 00193 Rome, Italy;
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Takahashi M, Kunita S, Kawakami M, Kadosaka T, Fujita H, Takada N, Miyake M, Kobayashi T, Ohnishi H, Nagashima S, Murata K, Okamoto H. First Detection and Characterization of Rat Hepatitis E Virus (HEV-C1) in Japan. Virus Res 2022; 314:198766. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2022.198766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 03/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Pankovics P, Boros Á, László Z, Szekeres S, Földvári G, Altan E, Delwart E, Reuter G. Genome characterization, prevalence and tissue distribution of astrovirus, hepevirus and norovirus among wild and laboratory rats (Rattus norvegicus) and mice (Mus musculus) in Hungary. INFECTION, GENETICS AND EVOLUTION : JOURNAL OF MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY GENETICS IN INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2021; 93:104942. [PMID: 34044191 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2021.104942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Rodents including rats are reservoir of several pathogens capable of affecting human health. In this study, faecal and different organ specimens from free-living Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) (N = 18) and faecal samples from laboratory rodents (rats N = 21 and mice N = 20) collected from different geographic areas in Hungary between 2017 and 2020 were investigated by viral metagenomics and conventional RT-PCR methods. The complete genome of three different RNA viruses, rat astrovirus, rat norovirus and rat hepevirus were characterized and analysed in detail. Rat norovirus was detected in faecal (17.6%, 3/17) and kidney (7.1%, 1/14) samples; rat astrovirus in faecal (23.5%, 4/17) and spleen (13.3%, 2/15) samples, and rat hepevirus in 43% to 67% the faecal, liver, kidney, lung, heart, muscle, brain and blood samples from Norway rats, respectively. Rat norovirus was also identifiable in 5% (1/21) of laboratory rats and rat astrovirus in 40% (8/20) of faecal samples from laboratory mice. Co-infections were found in 28% (5/18) wild Norway rats. The highest RNA viral load of astrovirus (1.81 × 108 copy/g) and norovirus (3.49 × 107 copy/g) were measured in faecal samples; while the highest RNA viral load of hepevirus (1.16 × 109 copy/g) was found in liver samples of Norway rats, respectively. This study confirms the wide geographic distribution and high prevalence of astrovirus, norovirus and hepevirus among wild rats in Hungary with confirmation of different organ involvement of as well as the detection of norovirus and astrovirus in laboratory rats and mice, respectively. This finding further strengthens the role of rodents in the spread of viral pathogens especially infecting human.
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Affiliation(s)
- Péter Pankovics
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.
| | - Ákos Boros
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Zoltán László
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Sándor Szekeres
- Department of Parasitology and Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Gábor Földvári
- Institute of Evolution, Centre for Ecological Research, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Eda Altan
- Vitalant Research Institute, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Eric Delwart
- Vitalant Research Institute, San Francisco, CA, USA; University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Gábor Reuter
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
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Glitscher M, Hildt E. Hepatitis E virus egress and beyond - the manifold roles of the viral ORF3 protein. Cell Microbiol 2021; 23:e13379. [PMID: 34272798 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Although the hepatitis E virus represents an uprising threat to the global community by representing the commonest cause of an acute viral hepatitis worldwide, its life cycle is grossly understudied. Albeit HEV is a non-enveloped virus, its progeny is released as quasi-enveloped virions. Thus, the responsible accessory protein pORF3 gained rising attention in the past years. It mediates viral release via the exosomal route by targeting the viral capsid to the endosomal system, more precisely to multivesicular bodies. As this is followed by quasi-envelopment, pORF3 may in terms represent a substitute to a conventional envelope protein. This feature proofs to be rather unique with respect to other enteric viruses, although the protein's role in the viral life cycle seems to reach far beyond simply maintaining release of progeny viruses. How pORF3 affects viral morphogenesis, how it mediates efficient viral release and how it supports viral spread is summarised in this microreview. With this, we aim to shed light on functions of pORF3 to gain further insights in still enigmatic aspects of the HEV life cycle. TAKE AWAYS: HEV is released as exosome via multivesicular bodies Viral pORF3 mediates release via endosomal complexes required for transport pORF3 modulates various cellular processes in infected cells Elucidation of pORF3-related processes imply novel clinical strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eberhard Hildt
- Department Virology, Paul-Ehrlich-Institut, Langen, Germany
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Production of capsid proteins of rat hepatitis E virus in Escherichia coli and characterization of self-assembled virus-like particles. Virus Res 2021; 302:198483. [PMID: 34146611 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2021.198483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Rat hepatitis E virus (HEV) has been isolated from wild rats worldwide and the potential of zoonotic transmission has been documented. Escherichia coli (E. coli) is utilized as an effective system for producing HEV-like particles. However, the production of rat HEV ORF2 proteins in E. coli forming virus-like particles (VLPs) has not yet been reported. In this study, nine rat HEV ORF2 proteins of the ratELOMB-131L strain with truncated N- and C-termini (amino acids 339-594, 349-594, 351-594, 354-594, 357-594, 357-599, 357-604, 357-609, and 357-614 of ORF2 protein) were expressed in E. coli and the 357-614 protein self-assembled most efficiently. A bioanalyzer showed that the purified 357-614 protein has a molecular weight of 33.5 kDa and a purity of 93.2%. Electron microscopy revealed that the purified 33.5 kDa protein formed VLPs with a diameter of 21-52 (average 32) nm, and immunoelectron microscopy using an anti-rat HEV ORF2 monoclonal antibody (TA7014) indicated that the observed VLPs were derived from rat HEV ORF2. The VLPs attached to and entered the PLC/PRF/5 cells and blocked the neutralization of rat HEV by TA7014, suggesting that the VLPs possess the antigenic structure of infectious rat HEV particles. In addition, rat HEV VLPs showed high immunogenicity in mice. The present results would be useful for future studies on the development of VLP-based vaccines for HEV prevention in a rat model and for the prevention of rat HEV infection in humans.
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Review of Hepatitis E Virus in Rats: Evident Risk of Species Orthohepevirus C to Human Zoonotic Infection and Disease. Viruses 2020; 12:v12101148. [PMID: 33050353 PMCID: PMC7600399 DOI: 10.3390/v12101148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Revised: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) (family Hepeviridae) is one of the most common human pathogens, causing acute hepatitis and an increasingly recognized etiological agent in chronic hepatitis and extrahepatic manifestations. Recent studies reported that not only are the classical members of the species Orthohepevirus A (HEV-A) pathogenic to humans but a genetically highly divergent rat origin hepevirus (HEV-C1) in species Orthohepevirus C (HEV-C) is also able to cause zoonotic infection and symptomatic disease (hepatitis) in humans. This review summarizes the current knowledge of hepeviruses in rodents with special focus of rat origin HEV-C1. Cross-species transmission and genetic diversity of HEV-C1 and confirmation of HEV-C1 infections and symptomatic disease in humans re-opened the long-lasting and full of surprises story of HEV in human. This novel knowledge has a consequence to the epidemiology, clinical aspects, laboratory diagnosis, and prevention of HEV infection in humans.
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Multivesicular body sorting and the exosomal pathway are required for the release of rat hepatitis E virus from infected cells. Virus Res 2020; 278:197868. [PMID: 31962066 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2020.197868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Recent reports have shown that rat hepatitis E virus (HEV) is capable of infecting humans. We also successfully propagated rat HEV into human PLC/PRF/5 cells, raising the possibility of a similar mechanism shared by human HEV and rat HEV. Rat HEV has the proline-rich sequence, PxYPMP, in the open reading frame 3 (ORF3) protein that is indispensable for its release. However, the release mechanism remains unclear. The overexpression of dominant-negative (DN) mutant of vacuolar protein sorting (Vps)4A or Vps4B decreased rat HEV release to 23.9 % and 18.0 %, respectively. The release of rat HEV was decreased to 8.3 % in tumor susceptibility gene 101 (Tsg101)-depleted cells and to 31.5 % in apoptosis-linked gene 2-interacting protein X (Alix)-depleted cells. Although rat HEV ORF3 protein did not bind to Tsg101, we found a 90-kDa protein capable of binding to wild-type rat HEV ORF3 protein but not to ORF3 mutant with proline to leucine mutations in the PxYPMP motif. Rat HEV release was also decreased in Ras-associated binding 27A (Rab27A)- or hepatocyte growth factor-regulated tyrosine kinase substrate (Hrs)-depleted cells (to 20.1 % and 18.5 %, respectively). In addition, the extracellular rat HEV levels in the infected PLC/PRF/5 cells were increased after treatment with Bafilomycin A1 and decreased after treatment with GW4869. These results indicate that rat HEV utilizes multivesicular body (MVB) sorting for its release and that the exosomal pathway is required for rat HEV egress. A host protein alternative to Tsg101 that can bind to rat HEV ORF3 should be explored in further study.
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Tanggis, Kobayashi T, Takahashi M, Jirintai S, Nishizawa T, Nagashima S, Nishiyama T, Kunita S, Hayama E, Tanaka T, Mulyanto, Okamoto H. An analysis of two open reading frames (ORF3 and ORF4) of rat hepatitis E virus genome using its infectious cDNA clones with mutations in ORF3 or ORF4. Virus Res 2018; 249:16-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2018.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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