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Obayashi K, Kodama Y. Dynamics of digestive vacuole differentiation clarified by the observation of living Paramecium bursaria. PROTOPLASMA 2024:10.1007/s00709-024-01996-1. [PMID: 39379752 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-024-01996-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2024] [Accepted: 09/29/2024] [Indexed: 10/10/2024]
Abstract
Paramecium bursaria is a ciliate species that has a symbiotic relationship with Chlorella spp. This study aimed to elucidate the dynamics of digestive vacuole (DV) differentiation in P. bursaria, using yeast stained with a pH indicator. Previously, DV differentiation in P. bursaria has been classified into eight periods based on fixed-cell observations. However, to understand the behavior and physiology of P. bursaria in its natural state, it is essential to observe living cells. This study presented a novel method using Cornig® Cell-Tak™ to immobilize living P. bursaria cells, which enabled long-term observation of the same cell from the same direction. This technique allowed for real-time observation of DV differentiation, including the relationship between changes in the internal pH of DV and the diameter of DV, yeast budding from the DV membrane by a single cell into the cytoplasm, and separation of a DV containing multiple yeasts into two DVs. This study provides new insights into the dynamic process of DV differentiation in P. bursaria. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the cellular mechanisms underlying the symbiotic relationship between the two organisms and shed light on the complex process of intracellular digestion in ciliates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiko Obayashi
- Major in Agricultural and Life Sciences, Graduate School of Natural Science and Technology, Shimane University, Matsue-Shi, Japan
| | - Yuuki Kodama
- Institute of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Academic Assembly, Shimane University, Matsue-Shi, Japan.
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2
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Kodama Y, Endoh Y. Comparative Analyses of the Symbiotic Associations of the Host Paramecium bursaria with Free-Living and Native Symbiotic Species of Chlorella. Curr Microbiol 2024; 81:66. [PMID: 38231280 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-023-03590-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024]
Abstract
Each symbiotic Chlorella variabilis associated with the ciliate Paramecium bursaria is enclosed in a symbiosome called the perialgal vacuole. Various potential symbionts, such as bacteria, yeasts, other algae, and free-living Chlorella spp., can infect P. bursaria. However, the detailed infection process of each of them in algae-free P. bursaria is unknown. Here, we aimed to elucidate the difference of the infection process between the free-living C. sorokiniana strain NIES-2169 and native symbiotic C. variabilis strain 1N. We investigated the fate of ingested algae using algae-free P. bursaria exposed separately to three types of algal inocula: NIES-2169 only, 1N only, or a mixture of NIES-2169 and 1N. We found that (1) only one algal species, preferably the native one, was retained in host cells, indicating a type of host compatibility and (2) the algal localization style beneath the host cell cortex varied between different Chlorella spp. showing various levels of host compatibilities, which was prospectively attributable to the difference in the formation of the perialgal vacuole membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuuki Kodama
- Institute of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Academic Assembly, Shimane University, Matsue-shi, Japan.
| | - Yuuka Endoh
- Department of Life Sciences, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, Shimane University, Matsue-shi, Japan
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3
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Brückner K, Griehl C. Permeabilization of the cell wall of Chlorella sorokiniana by the chitosan-degrading protease papain. ALGAL RES 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2023.103066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
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4
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Kodama Y, Fujishima M. Role of host ciliate Paramecium bursaria mitochondria and trichocysts for symbiotic Chlorella variabilis attachment beneath the host cell cortex. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2023; 370:fnad088. [PMID: 37660246 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnad088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 08/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Symbiotic Chlorella variabilis is encased in the perialgal vacuole (PV) membrane of ciliate Paramecium bursaria. The PV membrane is stably anchored below the host cell cortex by adhesion to host mitochondria. Host trichocysts, which are defensive organelles against predators, are present in the mitochondria and PV membrane vicinity. The mechanism by which PV attaches beneath the host cell cortex remains unknown. When P. bursaria is centrifuged at high speed, the symbiotic algae are displaced from the host cell cortex and concentrate at the posterior end. When centrifugation is stopped, the dislocated algae reattach beneath the host cell cortex with fast cytoplasmic streaming. The densities of mitochondria and trichocysts before and after centrifugation were compared using indirect immunofluorescence microscopy with monoclonal antibodies. Almost all trichocysts were shed by high-speed centrifugation, but dislocated algae could reattach even in the absence of trichocysts. In contrast, host mitochondria were unaffected in localization and number, and the dislocated algae also reattached. These findings suggest trichocysts are unnecessary for algal relocalization and that mitochondria are colocalized with the algae. However, many mitochondria were also present in the cell's anterior region without symbiotic algae. Therefore, not all areas with mitochondria contained algae, but there was an algal localization bias within the host cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuuki Kodama
- Institute of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Academic Assembly, Shimane University, 1060 Nishikawatsu-cho, Matsue-shi, Shimane 690-8504, Japan
| | - Masahiro Fujishima
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida 1677-1, Yamaguchi 753-8512, Japan
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Endosymbiotic Chlorella variabilis reduces mitochondrial number in the ciliate Paramecium bursaria. Sci Rep 2022; 12:8216. [PMID: 35637201 PMCID: PMC9151773 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-12496-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Extant symbioses illustrate endosymbiosis is a driving force for evolution and diversification. In the ciliate Paramecium bursaria, the endosymbiotic alga Chlorella variabilis in perialgal vacuole localizes beneath the host cell cortex by adhesion between the perialgal vacuole membrane and host mitochondria. We investigated whether host mitochondria are also affected by algal endosymbiosis. Transmission electron microscopy of host cells showed fewer mitochondria beneath the algae-bearing host cell cortex than that of alga-free cells. To compare the density and distribution of host mitochondria with or without symbiotic algae, we developed a monoclonal antibody against Paramecium mitochondria. Immunofluorescence microscopy with the monoclonal antibody showed that the mitochondrial density of the algae-bearing P. bursaria was significantly lower than that of the alga-free cells. The total cell protein concentration of alga-free P. bursaria cells was approximately 1.8-fold higher than that of algae-bearing cells, and the protein content of mitochondria was significantly higher in alga-free cells than that in the algae-bearing cells. These results corresponded with those obtained by transmission electron and immunofluorescence microscopies. This paper shows that endosymbiotic algae affect reduced mitochondrial number in the host P. bursaria significantly.
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6
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Kodama Y, Sumita H. The ciliate Paramecium bursaria allows budding of symbiotic Chlorella variabilis cells singly from the digestive vacuole membrane into the cytoplasm during algal reinfection. PROTOPLASMA 2022; 259:117-125. [PMID: 33881616 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-021-01645-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The ciliate Paramecium bursaria harbors several hundred symbiotic Chlorella spp. cells in the cytoplasm. Algal re-endosymbiosis can be artificially induced using alga-removed P. bursaria. During algal re-endosymbiosis, algae ingested into the host digestive vacuoles (DVs) avoid digestion by the host lysosomal enzymes and then escape into the cytoplasm by budding off of the DV membrane. The budded alga-enclosing DV membrane then differentiates into the symbiosome or perialgal vacuole (PV) membrane and is localized beneath the host cell cortex. In this study, we determined whether the PV membrane has the ability to recognize the symbiotic alga singly by eliminating other small microspheres in the same DV. To clarify the accuracy of the budding process, we mixed fluorescent-labeled microspheres of diameter 0.20 µm with isolated symbiotic algae during algal re-endosymbiosis. No fluorescence was observed from the PV membrane, as expected, and the budding DVs that enclosed both undigested and digested algae. Additionally, the algal re-endosymbiosis rate was significantly reduced in the presence of microspheres. These observations showed that the host P. bursaria allowed budding of the algae singly from the membranes of DVs without microspheres and this process required close contact between the DV membrane and the algal cell wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuuki Kodama
- Institute of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Academic Assembly, Shimane University, Matsue, Shimane, Japan.
| | - Haruka Sumita
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Life and Environmental Science, Shimane University, Matsue, Shimane, Japan
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7
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Geraghty S, Koutsouveli V, Hall C, Chang L, Sacristan-Soriano O, Hill M, Riesgo A, Hill A. Establishment of Host-Algal Endosymbioses: Genetic Response to Symbiont Versus Prey in a Sponge Host. Genome Biol Evol 2021; 13:6427630. [PMID: 34791195 PMCID: PMC8633732 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evab252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The freshwater sponge Ephydatia muelleri and its Chlorella-like algal partner is an emerging model for studying animal: algal endosymbiosis. The sponge host is a tractable laboratory organism, and the symbiotic algae are easily cultured. We took advantage of these traits to interrogate questions about mechanisms that govern the establishment of durable intracellular partnerships between hosts and symbionts in facultative symbioses. We modified a classical experimental approach to discern the phagocytotic mechanisms that might be co-opted to permit persistent infections, and identified genes differentially expressed in sponges early in the establishment of endosymbiosis. We exposed algal-free E. muelleri to live native algal symbionts and potential food items (bacteria and native heat-killed algae), and performed RNA-Seq to compare patterns of gene expression among treatments. We found a relatively small but interesting suite of genes that are differentially expressed in the host exposed to live algal symbionts, and a larger number of genes triggered by host exposure to heat-killed algae. The upregulated genes in sponges exposed to live algal symbionts were mostly involved in endocytosis, ion transport, metabolic processes, vesicle-mediated transport, and oxidation–reduction. One of the host genes, an ATP-Binding Cassette transporter that is downregulated in response to live algal symbionts, was further evaluated for its possible role in the establishment of the symbiosis. We discuss the gene expression profiles associated with host responses to living algal cells in the context of conditions necessary for long-term residency within host cells by phototrophic symbionts as well as the genetic responses to sponge phagocytosis and immune-driven pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Geraghty
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Virginia, USA.,Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics, Princeton University, New Jersey, USA
| | - Vasiliki Koutsouveli
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Marine Ecology, GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, Kiel, Germany
| | - Chelsea Hall
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Virginia, USA.,Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Lillian Chang
- Department of Biology, Bates College, Lewiston, Maine, USA
| | - Oriol Sacristan-Soriano
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Virginia, USA.,Centro de Estudios Avanzados de Blanes (CEAB, CSIC), Blanes, Spain
| | - Malcolm Hill
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Virginia, USA.,Department of Biology, Bates College, Lewiston, Maine, USA
| | - Ana Riesgo
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Biodiversity and Evolutionary Biology, National Museum of Natural Sciences, Madrid, Spain
| | - April Hill
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Virginia, USA.,Department of Biology, Bates College, Lewiston, Maine, USA
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Emergent RNA-RNA interactions can promote stability in a facultative phototrophic endosymbiosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2108874118. [PMID: 34521754 PMCID: PMC8463893 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2108874118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Stable endosymbiosis between eukaryotic microbes has driven the evolution of further cellular complexity. Yet the mechanisms that can act to stabilize an emergent eukaryote–eukaryote endosymbiosis are unclear. Using the model facultative endosymbiotic system, Paramecium bursaria, we demonstrate that endosymbiont–host RNA–RNA interactions can drive a cost to host growth upon endosymbiont digestion. These RNA–RNA interactions are facilitated by the host RNA-interference system. For endosymbiont messenger RNA sharing a high level of sequence identity with host transcripts, this process can result in host gene knockdown. We propose that these endosymbiont–host RNA–RNA interactions—“RNA-interference collisions”—represent an emergent mechanism to sanction the host for breakdown of the endosymbiosis, promoting the stability of the facultative endosymbiotic interaction. Eukaryote–eukaryote endosymbiosis was responsible for the spread of chloroplast (plastid) organelles. Stability is required for the metabolic and genetic integration that drives the establishment of new organelles, yet the mechanisms that act to stabilize emergent endosymbioses—between two fundamentally selfish biological organisms—are unclear. Theory suggests that enforcement mechanisms, which punish misbehavior, may act to stabilize such interactions by resolving conflict. However, how such mechanisms can emerge in a facultative endosymbiosis has yet to be explored. Here, we propose that endosymbiont–host RNA–RNA interactions, arising from digestion of the endosymbiont population, can result in a cost to host growth for breakdown of the endosymbiosis. Using the model facultative endosymbiosis between Paramecium bursaria and Chlorella spp., we demonstrate that this mechanism is dependent on the host RNA-interference (RNAi) system. We reveal through small RNA (sRNA) sequencing that endosymbiont-derived messenger RNA (mRNA) released upon endosymbiont digestion can be processed by the host RNAi system into 23-nt sRNA. We predict multiple regions of shared sequence identity between endosymbiont and host mRNA, and demonstrate through delivery of synthetic endosymbiont sRNA that exposure to these regions can knock down expression of complementary host genes, resulting in a cost to host growth. This process of host gene knockdown in response to endosymbiont-derived RNA processing by host RNAi factors, which we term “RNAi collisions,” represents a mechanism that can promote stability in a facultative eukaryote–eukaryote endosymbiosis. Specifically, by imposing a cost for breakdown of the endosymbiosis, endosymbiont–host RNA–RNA interactions may drive maintenance of the symbiosis across fluctuating ecological conditions.
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9
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Kodama Y, Miyazaki S. Autolysis of Chlorella variabilis in Starving Paramecium bursaria Help the Host Cell Survive Against Starvation Stress. Curr Microbiol 2021; 78:558-565. [PMID: 33389061 DOI: 10.1007/s00284-020-02304-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2020] [Accepted: 11/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The endosymbiosis between Paramecium bursaria and Chlorella spp. is mutualistic. Symbiotic algae localize beneath the host Paramecium cell cortex compete for their attachment sites with preexisting organelle trichocysts. To examine the relationship between P. bursaria trichocysts and their symbiotic algae, algae-bearing or alga-free P. bursaria were starved for several days and the changes in the number of Chlorella sp. and presence or absence of trichocysts were evaluated. We conducted an indirect immunofluorescence microscopy with an anti-trichocyst monoclonal antibody against P. bursaria cells. Indirect immunofluorescence microscopy demonstrated that under starvation and darkness conditions, the immunofluorescence of trichocysts in alga-free P. bursaria decreased much faster than that in the normal algae-bearing P. bursaria. In the latter case, our observations proposed the possibility that the nutrition obtained from symbiotic algal digestion may promote trichocysts synthesis. This algal digestion mechanism may permit host P. bursaria cells to survive for a longer time under starvation condition. To the best of our knowledge, this may be a new benefit that host P. bursaria gain from harboring symbiotic algae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuuki Kodama
- Institute of Agricultural and Life Sciences, Academic Assembly, Shimane University, Matsue, Shimane, Japan.
| | - Shoya Miyazaki
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Life and Environmental Science, Shimane University, Matsue, Shimane, Japan
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10
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Kawai S, Araki S, Kodama Y. No mutual symbiosis following infection of algae-free Paramecium bursaria with symbiotic algae from Mayorella viridis. Symbiosis 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s13199-017-0517-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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11
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Kodama Y, Nagase M, Takahama A. Symbiotic Chlorella variabilis strain, 1 N, can influence the digestive process in the host Paramecium bursaria during early infection. Symbiosis 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s13199-016-0411-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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12
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Kuroiwa T, Ohnuma M, Imoto Y, Misumi O, Nagata N, Miyakawa I, Fujishima M, Yagisawa F, Kuroiwa H. Genome Size of the Ultrasmall Unicellular Freshwater Green Alga, Medakamo hakoo 311, as Determined by Staining with 4′,6-Diamidino-2-phenylindole after Microwave Oven Treatments: II. Comparison with Cyanidioschyzon merolae, Saccharomyces cerevisiae ( n, 2 n), and Chlorella variabilis. CYTOLOGIA 2016. [DOI: 10.1508/cytologia.81.69] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tsuneyoshi Kuroiwa
- Department of Chemical and Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Japan Women’s University
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Agency
| | - Mio Ohnuma
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Agency
- Institute of Technology, Hiroshima College
| | - Yuuta Imoto
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Agency
- Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University
| | - Osami Misumi
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Agency
- Department of Applied Molecular Bioscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Yamaguchi University
| | - Noriko Nagata
- Department of Chemical and Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Japan Women’s University
| | - Isamu Miyakawa
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Engineering,
Yamaguchi University
| | - Masahiro Fujishima
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Engineering,
Yamaguchi University
| | - Fumi Yagisawa
- Instrumental Research Center, University of the Ryukyus
| | - Haruko Kuroiwa
- Department of Chemical and Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Japan Women’s University
- Core Research for Evolutional Science and Technology, Japan Science and Technology Agency
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Kodama Y, Fujishima M. Differences in infectivity between endosymbiotic Chlorella variabilis cultivated outside host Paramecium bursaria for 50 years and those immediately isolated from host cells after one year of reendosymbiosis. Biol Open 2015; 5:55-61. [PMID: 26718931 PMCID: PMC4728303 DOI: 10.1242/bio.013946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Chlorella variabilis strain NC64A is an intracellular photobiont of the ciliate Paramecium bursaria. NC64A was isolated from P. bursaria nearly 50 years ago and was thereafter cultivated outside the host. This study was undertaken to detect changes in its infectivity to P. bursaria and its auxotrophy for growth outside the host induced during long-term cultivation. NC64A can grow in Modified Bold's Basal Medium but not in C medium, whereas another symbiotic Chlorella variabilis strain, 1N, that was recently isolated from the host grew in C medium but not in Modified Bold's Basal Medium. With regards infectivity, NC64A in the logarithmic phase of growth showed low infectivity to alga-removed P. bursaria cells, whereas those in the early stationary phase showed high infectivity of about 30%. Those in the decay phase of growth showed no infectivity. Results show that NC64A has infectivity, but the infection rate depends on their culture age in the growth curve. Furthermore, NC64A that had been re-infected to P. bursaria for more than one year and isolated from the host showed a nearly 100% infection rate, which indicates that NC64A can recover its infectivity by re-infection to P. bursaria. Summary: This study was undertaken to detect changes in infectivity induced during long-term cultivation of Chlorella variabilis to alga-free Paramecium bursaria, and its auxotrophy for growth outside the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Kodama
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, Shimane University, 1060 Nishikawatsu-cho, Matsue-shi, Shimane 690-8504, Japan
| | - M Fujishima
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida 1677-1, Yamaguchi 753-8512, Japan
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Kodama Y, Fujishima M. Symbiotic Chlorella variabilis incubated under constant dark conditions for 24 hours loses the ability to avoid digestion by host lysosomal enzymes in digestive vacuoles of host ciliate Paramecium bursaria. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2014; 90:946-55. [PMID: 25348325 DOI: 10.1111/1574-6941.12448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2014] [Revised: 10/07/2014] [Accepted: 10/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Endosymbiosis between symbiotic Chlorella and alga-free Paramecium bursaria cells can be induced by mixing them. To establish the endosymbiosis, algae must acquire temporary resistance to the host lysosomal enzymes in the digestive vacuoles (DVs). When symbiotic algae isolated from the alga-bearing paramecia are kept under a constant dark conditions for 24 h before mixing with the alga-free paramecia, almost all algae are digested in the host DVs. To examine the cause of algal acquisition to the host lysosomal enzymes, the isolated algae were kept under a constant light conditions with or without a photosynthesis inhibitor 3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea for 24 h, and were mixed with alga-free paramecia. Unexpectedly, most of the algae were not digested in the DVs irrespective of the presence of the inhibitor. Addition of 1 mM maltose, a main photosynthetic product of the symbiotic algae or of a supernatant of the isolated algae kept for 24 h under a constant light conditions, did not rescue the algal digestion in the DVs. These observations reveal that unknown factors induced by light are a prerequisite for algal resistance to the host lysosomal enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuuki Kodama
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, Shimane University, Matsue, Japan
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15
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Localization of attachment area of the symbiotic Chlorella variabilis of the ciliate Paramecium bursaria during the algal removal and reinfection. Symbiosis 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s13199-013-0233-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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16
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Kodama Y, Fujishima M. Characteristics of the Digestive Vacuole Membrane of the Alga-Bearing Ciliate Paramecium bursaria. Protist 2012; 163:658-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.protis.2011.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2011] [Revised: 10/05/2011] [Accepted: 10/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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17
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Kodama Y, Fujishima M. Cell division and density of symbioticChlorella variabilisof the ciliateParamecium bursariais controlled by the host's nutritional conditions during early infection process. Environ Microbiol 2012; 14:2800-11. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2012.02793.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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18
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Fujishima M, Kodama Y. Endosymbionts in Paramecium. Eur J Protistol 2012; 48:124-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejop.2011.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2011] [Revised: 10/15/2011] [Accepted: 10/18/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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19
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Johnson MD. Acquired phototrophy in ciliates: a review of cellular interactions and structural adaptations. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2011; 58:185-95. [PMID: 21518077 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2011.00545.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Many ciliates acquire the capacity for photosynthesis through stealing plastids or harboring intact endosymbiotic algae. Both phenomena are a form of mixotrophy and are widespread among ciliates. Mixotrophic ciliates may be abundant in freshwater and marine ecosystems, sometimes making substantial contributions toward community primary productivity. While mixotrophic ciliates utilize phagotrophy to capture algal cells, their endomembrane system has evolved to partially bypass typical heterotrophic digestion pathways, enabling metabolic interaction with foreign cells or organelles. Unique adaptations may also be found in certain algal endosymbionts, facilitating establishment of symbiosis and nutritional interactions, while reducing their fitness for survival as free-living cells. Plastid retaining oligotrich ciliates possess little selectivity from which algae they sequester plastids, resulting in unstable kleptoplastids that require frequent ingestion of algal cells to replace them. Mesodinium rubrum (=Myrionecta rubra) possesses cryptophyte organelles that resemble a reduced endosymbont, and is the only ciliate capable of functional phototrophy and plastid division. Certain strains of M. rubrum may have a stable association with their cryptophyte organelles, while others need to acquire a cryptophyte nucleus through feeding. This process of stealing a nucleus, termed karyoklepty, was first described in M. rubrum and may be an evolutionary precursor to a stable, reduced endosymbiont, and perhaps eventually a tertiary plastid. The newly described Mesodinium"chamaeleon," however, is less selective of which cryptophyte species it will retain organelles, and appears less capable of sustained phototrophy. Ciliates likely stem from a phototrophic ancestry, which may explain their propensity to practice acquired phototrophy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Johnson
- Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 266 Woods Hole Road, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543, USA.
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Kodama Y, Fujishima M. Endosymbiosis of Chlorella species to the ciliate Paramecium bursaria alters the distribution of the host's trichocysts beneath the host cell cortex. PROTOPLASMA 2011; 248:325-337. [PMID: 20582727 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-010-0175-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2010] [Accepted: 06/15/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Each symbiotic Chlorella of the ciliate Paramecium bursaria is enclosed in a perialgal vacuole membrane derived from the host digestive vacuole membrane. Alga-free paramecia and symbiotic algae can grow independently. Mixing them experimentally can cause reinfection. Earlier, we reported that the symbiotic algae appear to push the host trichocysts aside to become fixed beneath the host cell cortex during the algal reinfection process. Indirect immunofluorescence microscopy with a monoclonal antibody against the trichocysts demonstrates that the trichocysts change their locality to form algal attachment sites and decrease their density beneath the host cell cortex through algal reinfection. Transmission electron microscopy to detect acid phosphatase activity showed that some trichocysts near the host cell cortex are digested by the host lysosomal fusion during algal reinfection. Removal of algae from the host cell using cycloheximide recovers the trichocyst's arrangement and number near the host cell cortex. These results indicate that symbiotic algae compete for their attachment sites with preexisting trichocysts and that the algae have the ability to ensure algal attachment sites beneath the host cell cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuuki Kodama
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Yamaguchi University, Yoshida 1677-1, Yamaguchi, 753-8512, Japan.
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Johnson MD. The acquisition of phototrophy: adaptive strategies of hosting endosymbionts and organelles. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2011; 107:117-132. [PMID: 20405214 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-010-9546-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2009] [Accepted: 03/22/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Many non-photosynthetic species of protists and metazoans are capable of hosting viable algal endosymbionts or their organelles through adaptations of phagocytic pathways. A form of mixotrophy combining phototrophy and heterotrophy, acquired phototrophy (AcPh) encompasses a suite of endosymbiotic and organelle retention interactions, that range from facultative to obligate. AcPh is a common phenomenon in aquatic ecosystems, with endosymbiotic associations generally more prevalent in nutrient poor environments, and organelle retention typically associated with more productive ones. All AcPhs benefit from enhanced growth due to access to photosynthetic products; however, the degree of metabolic integration and dependency in the host varies widely. AcPh is found in at least four of the major eukaryotic supergroups, and is the driving force in the evolution of secondary and tertiary plastid acquisitions. Mutualistic resource partitioning characterizes most algal endosymbiotic interactions, while organelle retention is a form of predation, characterized by nutrient flow (i.e., growth) in one direction. AcPh involves adaptations to recognize specific prey or endosymbionts and to house organelles or endosymbionts within the endomembrane system but free from digestion. In many cases, hosts depend upon AcPh for the production of essential nutrients, many of which remain obscure. The practice of AcPh has led to multiple independent secondary and tertiary plastid acquisition events among several eukaryote lineages, giving rise to the diverse array of algae found in modern aquatic ecosystems. This article highlights those AcPhs that are model research organisms for both metazoans and protists. Much of the basic biology of AcPhs remains enigmatic, particularly (1) which essential nutrients or factors make certain forms of AcPh obligatory, (2) how hosts regulate and manipulate endosymbionts or sequestered organelles, and (3) what genomic imprint, if any, AcPh leaves on non-photosynthetic host species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew D Johnson
- Department of Biology, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, MA, 02543, USA.
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Kodama Y, Fujishima M. Secondary symbiosis between Paramecium and Chlorella cells. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2010; 279:33-77. [PMID: 20797676 DOI: 10.1016/s1937-6448(10)79002-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Each symbiotic Chlorella species of Paramecium bursaria is enclosed in a perialgal vacuole (PV) membrane derived from the host digestive vacuole (DV) membrane. Algae-free paramecia and symbiotic algae are capable of growing independently and paramecia can be reinfected experimentally by mixing them. This phenomenon provides an excellent model for studying cell-to-cell interaction and the evolution of eukaryotic cells through secondary endosymbiosis between different protists. However, the detailed algal infection process remains unclear. Using pulse labeling of the algae-free paramecia with the isolated symbiotic algae and chase method, we found four necessary cytological events for establishing endosymbiosis. (1) At about 3 min after mixing, some algae show resistance to the host lysosomal enzymes in the DVs, even if the digested ones are present. (2) At about 30 min after mixing, the alga starts to escape from the DVs as the result of the budding of the DV membrane into the cytoplasm. (3) Within 15 min after the escape, the DV membrane enclosing a single green alga differentiates to the PV membrane, which provides protection from lysosomal fusion. (4) The alga localizes at the primary lysosome-less host cell surface by affinity of the PV to unknown structures of the host. At about 24 h after mixing, the alga multiplies by cell division and establishes endosymbiosis. Infection experiments with infection-capable and infection-incapable algae indicate that the infectivity of algae is based on their ability to localize beneath the host surface after escaping from the DVs. This algal infection process differs from known infection processes of other symbiotic or parasitic organisms to their hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuuki Kodama
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, Japan
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Kodama Y, Fujishima M. Localization of Perialgal Vacuoles beneath the Host Cell Surface is not a Prerequisite Phenomenon for Protection from the Host's Lysosomal Fusion in the Ciliate Paramecium bursaria. Protist 2009; 160:319-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.protis.2008.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2008] [Accepted: 11/09/2008] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Kodama Y, Fujishima M. Infection of Paramecium bursaria by Symbiotic Chlorella Species. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-92677-1_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/19/2023]
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Kodama Y, Fujishima M. Cycloheximide Induces Synchronous Swelling of Perialgal Vacuoles Enclosing Symbiotic Chlorella vulgaris and Digestion of the Algae in the Ciliate Paramecium bursaria. Protist 2008; 159:483-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.protis.2008.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2007] [Accepted: 02/23/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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