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Chen S, Chen J, Wang C, He T, Yang Z, Huang W, Luo X, Zhu H. Betaine attenuates age-related suppression in autophagy via Mettl21c/p97/VCP axis to delay muscle loss. J Nutr Biochem 2024; 125:109555. [PMID: 38147913 DOI: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2023.109555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
Age-related impairment of autophagy accelerates muscle loss and lead to sarcopenia. Betaine can delay muscle loss as a dietary methyl donor via increasing S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM, a crucial metabolite for autophagy regulation) in methionion cycle. However, whether betaine can regulate autophagy level to attenuate degeneration in aging muscle remains unclear. Herein, male C57BL/6J young mice (YOU, 2-month-old), old mice (OLD, 15-month-old), and 2%-betaine-treated old mice (BET, 15-month-old) were employed and raised for 12 weeks. All mice underwent body composition examination and grip strength test before being sacrificed. Betaine alleviated age-related decline in muscle mass and strength. Meanwhile, betaine preserved the expression autophagy markers (Atg5, Atg7, LC3-II, and Beclin1) both at transcriptional and translational level during the aging process. RNA-sequencing results generated from mice gastrocnemius muscle found Mettl21c, a SAM-dependent autophagy-regulating methyltransferase, was significantly higher expressed in BET and YOU group. Results were further validated by qPCR and western bloting. In vitro, C2C12 cells with or without Mettl21c RNA interference were treated different concentration of betaine (0 mM, 10 mM) under methionine-starved condition. Compared with control group, betaine upregulated autophagy markers expression and autophagy flux. By increasing the SAM level, betaine facilitated trimethylation of p97 (Mettl21c downstream effector) into valosin-containing protein (VCP). Increased VCP promoted autophagic turnover of cellular components, ATP production, and cell differentiation. Knock-down of Metthl21c dismissed improvements mentioned above. Collectively, betaine could enhance aged skeletal muscle autophagy level via Mettl21c/p97/VCP axis to delay muscle loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si Chen
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food, Nutrition and Health, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiedong Chen
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food, Nutrition and Health, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chen Wang
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food, Nutrition and Health, Guangzhou, China
| | - Tongtong He
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food, Nutrition and Health, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhijun Yang
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food, Nutrition and Health, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenge Huang
- Center of Experimental Animals, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaolin Luo
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China; Experimental and Teaching Center for Public Health, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Huilian Zhu
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food, Nutrition and Health, Guangzhou, China.
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Akhiiarova K, Khusainova R, Minniakhmetov I, Mokrysheva N, Tyurin A. Peak Bone Mass Formation: Modern View of the Problem. Biomedicines 2023; 11:2982. [PMID: 38001982 PMCID: PMC10669090 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11112982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Peak bone mass is the amount of bone tissue that is formed when a stable skeletal state is achieved at a young age. To date, there are no established peak bone mass standards nor clear data on the age at which peak bone mass occurs. At the same time, the level of peak bone mass at a young age is an important predictor of the onset of primary osteoporosis. The purpose of this review is to analyze the results of studies of levels of peak bone mass in general, the age of its onset, as well as factors influencing its formation. Factors such as hormonal levels, body composition, physical activity, nutrition, heredity, smoking, lifestyle, prenatal predictors, intestinal microbiota, and vitamin and micronutrient status were considered, and a comprehensive scheme of the influence of these factors on the level of peak bone mass was created. Determining the standards and timing of the formation of peak bone mass, and the factors affecting it, will help in the development of measures to prevent its shortage and the consequent prevention of osteoporosis and concomitant diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina Akhiiarova
- Internal Medicine Department, Bashkir State Medical University, 450008 Ufa, Russia;
| | - Rita Khusainova
- Medical Genetics Department, Bashkir State Medical University, 450008 Ufa, Russia;
- Endocrinology Research Centre, Dmitriya Ulianova Street, 11, 117036 Moscow, Russia; (I.M.); (N.M.)
| | - Ildar Minniakhmetov
- Endocrinology Research Centre, Dmitriya Ulianova Street, 11, 117036 Moscow, Russia; (I.M.); (N.M.)
| | - Natalia Mokrysheva
- Endocrinology Research Centre, Dmitriya Ulianova Street, 11, 117036 Moscow, Russia; (I.M.); (N.M.)
| | - Anton Tyurin
- Internal Medicine Department, Bashkir State Medical University, 450008 Ufa, Russia;
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Falnes PØ, Małecki JM, Herrera MC, Bengtsen M, Davydova E. Human seven-β-strand (METTL) methyltransferases - conquering the universe of protein lysine methylation. J Biol Chem 2023; 299:104661. [PMID: 36997089 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2023.104661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023] Open
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Wang S, Zhao J, Wang L, Zhang T, Zeng W, Lu H. METTL21C mediates lysine trimethylation of IGF2BP1 to regulate chicken myoblast proliferation. Br Poult Sci 2023; 64:74-80. [PMID: 36069737 DOI: 10.1080/00071668.2022.2121639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
1. Methyltransferase-like 21C (METTL21C) and insulin-like growth factor 2 mRNA-binding protein 1 (IGF2BP1) play important roles in the proliferation of chicken myoblasts. However, it remains unclear whether there is protein-protein interaction between METTL21C and IGF2BP1 to regulate proliferation of chicken myoblasts.2. In this study, the Igf2bp1 gene was amplified from cDNA of liver tissue of Lueyang black-bone chicken to construct the overexpression vector HA-Igf2bp1. The HA-Igf2bp1 and Flag-Mettl21c vectors were individually transfected and co-transfected into HEK293T, respectively. Co-immunoprecipitation (Co-IP) assay indicated a protein-protein interaction between METTL21C and IGF2BP1.3. Using the Western blotting and LC-MS/MS, it was found that METTL21C could mediate the lysine methylation modification of IGF2BP1. Furthermore, the His-tagged overexpression vector HA-Igf2bp1-His was constructed, transfected and co-transfected with Flag-Mettl21c into HEK293T. His-tagged IGF2BP1 was purified by nickel ion affinity chromatography. Western blotting revealed that IGF2BP1 was successfully purified, and the trimethylation modification level of co-transfection group was significantly elevated compared with the single-transfection Igf2bp1 group.4. Mettl21c and Igf2bp1 overexpression vectors were transfected and co-transfected into primary chicken myoblasts, respectively. The results of 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine assay and the expression level of Pax7 and MyoD indicated that overexpression of Igf2bp1 alone inhibited the chicken myoblast proliferation, whereas co-expression of Mettl21c and Igf2bp1 eliminated the inhibitory effects of Igf2bp1, thereby favouring cell proliferation and differentiation.5. The results, for the first time, revealed that METTL21C mediated the lysine trimethylation modification of IGF2BP1 to regulate the proliferation of chicken myoblasts, which provided a new insight into in-depth analysis of the molecular mechanism of METTL21C methylation involved in regulating the growth and development of skeletal muscle in Lueyang black-bone chicken.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Wang
- School of Biological Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, Shaanxi, China
- Qinba State Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Ecological Environment, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, Shaanxi, China
| | - J Zhao
- School of Biological Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, Shaanxi, China
| | - L Wang
- School of Biological Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, Shaanxi, China
- Qinba State Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Ecological Environment, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, Shaanxi, China
| | - T Zhang
- School of Biological Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, Shaanxi, China
- Department of Biology, QinLing-Bashan Mountains Bioresources Comprehensive Development C. I. C., Hanzhong, Shaanxi, China
| | - W Zeng
- School of Biological Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, Shaanxi, China
- Department of Biology, QinLing-Bashan Mountains Bioresources Comprehensive Development C. I. C., Hanzhong, Shaanxi, China
| | - H Lu
- School of Biological Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, Shaanxi, China
- Qinba State Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Ecological Environment, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, Shaanxi, China
- Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of Bio-resources, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, Shaanxi, China
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Shi SQ, Li SS, Zhang XY, Wei Z, Fu WZ, He JW, Hu YQ, Li M, Zheng LL, Zhang ZL. LGR4 Gene Polymorphisms Are Associated With Bone and Obesity Phenotypes in Chinese Female Nuclear Families. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021; 12:656077. [PMID: 34707566 PMCID: PMC8544421 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.656077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The current study was conducted to determine whether peak bone mineral density (BMD) and obesity phenotypes are associated with certain LGR4 gene polymorphisms found in Chinese nuclear families with female children. METHODS A total of 22 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) located in and around the LGR4 gene were identified in 1,300 subjects who were members of 390 Chinese nuclear families with female children. Then, BMD readings of the femoral neck, total hip, and lumbar spine as well as measurements of the total lean mass (TLM), total fat mass (TFM), and trunk fat mass were obtained via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. The quantitative transmission disequilibrium test was used to analyze the associations between specific SNPs and LGR4 haplotypes and peak BMD as well as between LGR4 haplotypes and TLM, percent lean mass, TFM, percent fat mass, trunk fat mass, and body mass index (BMI). RESULTS Here, rs7936621 was significantly associated with the BMD values for the total hip and lumbar spine, while rs10835171 and rs6484295 were associated with the trunk fat mass and BMI, respectively. Regarding the haplotypes, we found significant associations between GAA in block 2 and trunk fat mass and BMI, between AGCGT in block 3 and total hip BMD, between TGCTCC in block 5 and femoral neck BMD, and between TACTTC in block 5 and both lumbar spine and femoral neck BMD (all P-values < 0.05). CONCLUSION Genetic variations of the LGR4 gene are related to peak BMD, BMI, and trunk fat mass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su-qin Shi
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
- Metabolic Bone Disease and Genetic Research Unit, Department of Osteoporosis and Bone Disease, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People’s Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Shan-shan Li
- Metabolic Bone Disease and Genetic Research Unit, Department of Osteoporosis and Bone Disease, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People’s Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiao-ya Zhang
- Metabolic Bone Disease and Genetic Research Unit, Department of Osteoporosis and Bone Disease, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People’s Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhe Wei
- Metabolic Bone Disease and Genetic Research Unit, Department of Osteoporosis and Bone Disease, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People’s Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Wen-zhen Fu
- Metabolic Bone Disease and Genetic Research Unit, Department of Osteoporosis and Bone Disease, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People’s Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Jin-wei He
- Metabolic Bone Disease and Genetic Research Unit, Department of Osteoporosis and Bone Disease, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People’s Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Yun-qiu Hu
- Metabolic Bone Disease and Genetic Research Unit, Department of Osteoporosis and Bone Disease, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People’s Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Miao Li
- Metabolic Bone Disease and Genetic Research Unit, Department of Osteoporosis and Bone Disease, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People’s Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Li-li Zheng
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Zhen-lin Zhang, ; Li-li Zheng,
| | - Zhen-lin Zhang
- Metabolic Bone Disease and Genetic Research Unit, Department of Osteoporosis and Bone Disease, Shanghai Jiao Tong University Affiliated Sixth People’s Hospital, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Zhen-lin Zhang, ; Li-li Zheng,
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Yang G, Lu H, Wang L, Zhao J, Zeng W, Zhang T. Genome-Wide Identification and Transcriptional Expression of the METTL21C Gene Family in Chicken. Genes (Basel) 2019; 10:genes10080628. [PMID: 31434291 PMCID: PMC6723737 DOI: 10.3390/genes10080628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The chicken is a common type of poultry that is economically important both for its medicinal and nutritional values. Previous studies have found that free-range chickens have more skeletal muscle mass. The methyltransferase-like 21C gene (METTL21C) plays an important role in muscle development; however, there have been few reports on the role of METTL21C in chickens. In this study, we performed a genome-wide identification of chicken METTL21C genes and analyzed their phylogeny, transcriptional expression profile, and real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). We identified 10 GgMETTL21C genes from chickens, 11 from mice, and 32 from humans, and these genes were divided into six groups, which showed a large amount of variation among these three species. A total of 15 motifs were detected in METTL21C genes, and the intron phase of the gene structure showed that the METTL21C gene family was conservative in evolution. Further, both the transcript data and qPCR showed that a single gene’s (GgMETTL21C3) expression level increased with the muscle development of chickens, indicating that the METTL21C genes are involved in the development of chicken muscles. Our results provide some reference value for the subsequent study of the function of METTL21C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ge Yang
- School of Biological Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, Shaanxi 723001, China
| | - Hongzhao Lu
- School of Biological Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, Shaanxi 723001, China
| | - Ling Wang
- School of Biological Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, Shaanxi 723001, China
| | - Jiarong Zhao
- School of Biological Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, Shaanxi 723001, China
| | - Wenxian Zeng
- School of Biological Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, Shaanxi 723001, China
| | - Tao Zhang
- School of Biological Science and Engineering, Shaanxi University of Technology, Hanzhong, Shaanxi 723001, China.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To summarize the evidence from recent studies on the shared genetics between bone and muscle in humans. RECENT FINDINGS Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have successfully identified a multitude of loci influencing the variability of different bone or muscle parameters, with multiple loci overlapping between the traits. In addition, joint analyses of multiple correlated musculoskeletal traits (i.e., multivariate GWAS) have underscored several genes with possible pleiotropic effects on both bone and muscle including MEF2C and SREBF1. Notably, several of the proposed pleiotropic genes have been validated using human cells or animal models. It is clear that the study of pleiotropy may provide novel insights into disease pathophysiology potentially leading to the identification of new treatment strategies that simultaneously prevent or treat both osteoporosis and sarcopenia. However, the role of muscle factors (myokines) that stimulate bone metabolism, as well as osteokines that affect muscles, is in its earliest stage of understanding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Trajanoska
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Fernando Rivadeneira
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
| | - Douglas P Kiel
- Hebrew SeniorLife, Institute for Aging Research, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Broad Institute of Harvard and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, MA, USA
| | - David Karasik
- Hebrew SeniorLife, Institute for Aging Research, Boston, MA, USA.
- Azrieli Faculty of Medicine, Bar-Ilan University, Safed, Israel.
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Hong EP, Rhee KH, Kim DH, Park JW. Identification of pleiotropic genetic variants affecting osteoporosis risk in a Korean elderly cohort. J Bone Miner Metab 2019; 37:43-52. [PMID: 29273888 DOI: 10.1007/s00774-017-0892-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 11/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Pleiotropy has important implications for understanding the genetic basis and risk assessment of osteoporosis. Our aim was to identify pleiotropic genetic variants associated with the development of osteoporosis and predict osteoporosis risk by leveraging pleiotropic variants. We evaluated the effects of 21 conventional risk factors and 185 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 63 inflammation- and metabolism-related genes on osteoporosis risk in a community-based Korean cohort study of 1025 participants, the Hallym Aging Study. Ten nongenetic factors, including sex (female) and hematocrit level, and 12 SNPs across ten genes showed evidence of association with incident osteoporosis in 270 initially osteoporosis-free subjects who completed a 6-year follow up. Three gene variants, rs1801282 (PPARG-Pro12Ala, hazard ratio (HR) = 3.26, P = 0.008), rs1408282 (near EPHA7, HR = 1.87, P = 0.002), and rs2076212 (PNPLA3-Gly115Cys, HR = 2.24, P = 0.024), were associated with significant differences in survival among the three genotype groups (Pdiff = 0.042, 0.003, and 0.048, respectively). Individuals in the highest polygenic risk score tertile were 27.9 fold more likely to develop osteoporosis than those in the lowest tertile (P = 0.004). The PPARG gene in particular was a hub pleiotropic gene in the epistasis network. Our findings highlight pleiotropic modulations of metabolism- and inflammation-related genes in the development of osteoporosis and demonstrate the contribution of pleiotropic genetic variants in prediction of osteoporosis risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Pyo Hong
- Department of Medical Genetics, College of Medicine, Hallym University, 1 Hallymdaehak-gil, Chuncheon, Gangwon-do, 24252, Republic of Korea
| | - Ka Hyun Rhee
- Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, Hallym University, Chuncheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Hyun Kim
- Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, College of Medicine, Hallym University, Chuncheon, Republic of Korea
- Hallym Research Institute of Clinical Epidemiology, Hallym University Sacred Heart Hospital, Anyang, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Wan Park
- Department of Medical Genetics, College of Medicine, Hallym University, 1 Hallymdaehak-gil, Chuncheon, Gangwon-do, 24252, Republic of Korea.
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Hamey JJ, Wienert B, Quinlan KGR, Wilkins MR. METTL21B Is a Novel Human Lysine Methyltransferase of Translation Elongation Factor 1A: Discovery by CRISPR/Cas9 Knockout. Mol Cell Proteomics 2017; 16:2229-2242. [PMID: 28663172 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m116.066308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Revised: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysine methylation is widespread on human proteins, however the enzymes that catalyze its addition remain largely unknown. This limits our capacity to study the function and regulation of this modification. Here we used the CRISPR/Cas9 system to knockout putative protein methyltransferases METTL21B and METTL23 in K562 cells, to determine if they methylate elongation factor eEF1A. The known eEF1A methyltransferase EEF1AKMT1 was also knocked out as a control. Targeted mass spectrometry revealed the loss of lysine 165 methylation upon knockout of METTL21B, and the expected loss of lysine 79 methylation on knockout of EEF1AKMT1 No loss of eEF1A methylation was seen in the METTL23 knockout. Recombinant METTL21B was shown in vitro to catalyze methylation on lysine 165 in eEF1A1 and eEF1A2, confirming it as the methyltransferase responsible for this methylation site. Proteomic analysis by SILAC revealed specific upregulation of large ribosomal subunit proteins in the METTL21B knockout, and changes to further processes related to eEF1A function in knockouts of both METTL21B and EEF1AKMT1 This indicates that the methylation of lysine 165 in human eEF1A has a very specific role. METTL21B exists only in vertebrates, with its target lysine showing similar evolutionary conservation. We suggest METTL21B be renamed eEF1A-KMT3. This is the first study to specifically generate CRISPR/Cas9 knockouts of putative protein methyltransferase genes, for substrate discovery and site mapping. Our approach should prove useful for the discovery of further novel methyltransferases, and more generally for the discovery of sites for other protein-modifying enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua J Hamey
- From the ‡School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, New South Wales, 2052, Australia
| | - Beeke Wienert
- From the ‡School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, New South Wales, 2052, Australia
| | - Kate G R Quinlan
- From the ‡School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, New South Wales, 2052, Australia
| | - Marc R Wilkins
- From the ‡School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, University of New South Wales, New South Wales, 2052, Australia
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