Genetic analysis of the Holliday junction resolvases Hje and Hjc in Sulfolobus islandicus

Intermolecular Gene Conversion for the Equalization of Genome Copies in the Polyploid Haloarchaeon Haloferax volcanii: Identification of Important Proteins

The model haloarchaeon Haloferax volcanii is polyploid with about 20 copies of its major chromosome. Recently it has been described that highly efficient intermolecular gene conversion operates in H. volcanii to equalize the chromosomal copies. In the current study, 24 genes were selected that encode proteins with orthologs involved in gene conversion or homologous recombination in archaea, bacteria, or eukaryotes. Single gene deletion strains of 22 genes and a control gene were constructed in two parent strains for a gene conversion assay; only radA and radB were shown to be essential. Protoplast fusions were used to generate strains that were heterozygous for the gene HVO_2528, encoding an enzyme for carotinoid biosynthesis. It was revealed that a lack of six of the proteins did not influence the efficiency of gene conversion, while sixteen mutants had severe gene conversion defects. Notably, lack of paralogous proteins of gene families had very different effects, e.g., mutant Δrad25b had no phenotype, while mutants Δrad25a, Δrad25c, and Δrad25d were highly compromised. Generation of a quadruple rad25 and a triple sph deletion strain also indicated that the paralogs have different functions, in contrast to sph2 and sph4, which cannot be deleted simultaneously. There was no correlation between the severity of the phenotypes and the respective transcript levels under non-stressed conditions, indicating that gene expression has to be induced at the onset of gene conversion. Phylogenetic trees of the protein families Rad3/25, MutL/S, and Sph/SMC/Rad50 were generated to unravel the history of the paralogous proteins of H. volcanii. Taken together, unselected intermolecular gene conversion in H. volcanii involves at least 16 different proteins, the molecular roles of which can be studied in detail in future projects.

The FHA domain protein ArnA functions as a global DNA damage response repressor in the hyperthermophilic archaeon Saccharolobus islandicus

Forkhead-associated (FHA) domain proteins specifically recognize phosphorylated threonine via the FHA domain and are involved in signal transduction in various processes especially DNA damage response (DDR) and cell cycle regulation in eukaryotes. Although FHA domain proteins are found in prokaryotes, archaea, and bacteria, their functions are far less clear as compared to the eukaryotic counterparts, and it has not been studied whether archaeal FHA proteins play a role in DDR. Here, we have characterized an FHA protein from the hyperthermophilic Crenarchaeon Saccharolobus islandicus (SisArnA) by genetic, biochemical, and transcriptomic approaches. We find that ΔSisarnA exhibits higher resistance to DNA damage agent 4-nitroquinoline 1-oxide (NQO). The transcription of ups genes, encoding the proteins for pili-mediated cell aggregation and cell survival after DDR, is elevated in ΔSisarnA. The interactions of SisArnA with two predicted partners, SisvWA1 (SisArnB) and SisvWA2 (designated as SisArnE), were enhanced by phosphorylation in vitro. ΔSisarnB displays higher resistance to NQO than the wild type. In addition, the interaction between SisArnA and SisArnB, which is reduced in the NQO-treated cells, is indispensable for DNA binding in vitro. These indicate that SisArnA and SisArnB work together to inhibit the expression of ups genes in vivo. Interestingly, ΔSisarnE is more sensitive to NQO than the wild type, and the interaction between SisArnA and SisArnE is strengthened after NQO treatment, suggesting a positive role of SisArnE in DDR. Finally, transcriptomic analysis reveals that SisArnA represses a number of genes, implying that archaea apply the FHA/phospho-peptide recognition module for extensive transcriptional regulation. IMPORTANCE Cellular adaption to diverse environmental stresses requires a signal sensor and transducer for cell survival. Protein phosphorylation and its recognition by forkhead-associated (FHA) domain proteins are widely used for signal transduction in eukaryotes. Although FHA proteins exist in archaea and bacteria, investigation of their functions, especially those in DNA damage response (DDR), is limited. Therefore, the evolution and functional conservation of FHA proteins in the three domains of life is still a mystery. Here, we find that an FHA protein from the hyperthermophilic Crenarchaeon Saccharolobus islandicus (SisArnA) represses the transcription of pili genes together with its phosphorylated partner SisArnB. SisArnA derepression facilitates DNA exchange and repair in the presence of DNA damage. The fact that more genes including a dozen of those involved in DDR are found to be regulated by SisArnA implies that the FHA/phosphorylation module may serve as an important signal transduction pathway for transcriptional regulation in archaeal DDR.

DNA repair enzymes of the Antarctic Dry Valley metagenome

Microbiota inhabiting the Dry Valleys of Antarctica are subjected to multiple stressors that can damage deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) such as desiccation, high ultraviolet light (UV) and multiple freeze-thaw cycles. To identify novel or highly-divergent DNA-processing enzymes that may enable effective DNA repair, we have sequenced metagenomes from 30 sample-sites which are part of the most extensive Antarctic biodiversity survey undertaken to date. We then used these to construct wide-ranging sequence similarity networks from protein-coding sequences and identified candidate genes involved in specialized repair processes including unique nucleases as well as a diverse range of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) -dependent DNA ligases implicated in stationary-phase DNA repair processes. In one of the first direct investigations of enzyme function from these unique samples, we have heterologously expressed and assayed a number of these enzymes, providing insight into the mechanisms that may enable resident microbes to survive these threats to their genomic integrity.

Genetic Study of Four Candidate Holliday Junction Processing Proteins in the Thermophilic Crenarchaeon Sulfolobus acidocaldarius

Homologous recombination (HR) is thought to be important for the repair of stalled replication forks in hyperthermophilic archaea. Previous biochemical studies identified two branch migration helicases (Hjm and PINA) and two Holliday junction (HJ) resolvases (Hjc and Hje) as HJ-processing proteins; however, due to the lack of genetic evidence, it is still unclear whether these proteins are actually involved in HR in vivo and how their functional relation is associated with the process. To address the above questions, we constructed hjc-, hje-, hjm-, and pina single-knockout strains and double-knockout strains of the thermophilic crenarchaeon Sulfolobus acidocaldarius and characterized the mutant phenotypes. Notably, we succeeded in isolating the hjm- and/or pina-deleted strains, suggesting that the functions of Hjm and PINA are not essential for cellular growth in this archaeon, as they were previously thought to be essential. Growth retardation in Δpina was observed at low temperatures (cold sensitivity). When deletion of the HJ resolvase genes was combined, Δpina Δhjc and Δpina Δhje exhibited severe cold sensitivity. Δhjm exhibited severe sensitivity to interstrand crosslinkers, suggesting that Hjm is involved in repairing stalled replication forks, as previously demonstrated in euryarchaea. Our findings suggest that the function of PINA and HJ resolvases is functionally related at lower temperatures to support robust cellular growth, and Hjm is important for the repair of stalled replication forks in vivo.

Haloferax volcanii-a model archaeon for studying DNA replication and repair

The tree of life shows the relationship between all organisms based on their common ancestry. Until 1977, it comprised two major branches: prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Work by Carl Woese and other microbiologists led to the recategorization of prokaryotes and the proposal of three primary domains: Eukarya, Bacteria and Archaea. Microbiological, genetic and biochemical techniques were then needed to study the third domain of life. Haloferax volcanii, a halophilic species belonging to the phylum Euryarchaeota, has provided many useful tools to study Archaea, including easy culturing methods, genetic manipulation and phenotypic screening. This review will focus on DNA replication and DNA repair pathways in H. volcanii, how this work has advanced our knowledge of archaeal cellular biology, and how it may deepen our understanding of bacterial and eukaryotic processes.

Functional Analysis of the NucS/EndoMS of the Hyperthermophilic Archaeon Sulfolobus islandicus REY15A

EndoMS is a recently identified mismatch specific endonuclease in Thermococcales of Archaea and Mycobacteria of Bacteria. The homologs of EndoMS are conserved in Archaea and Actinobacteria, where classic MutS-MutL-mediated DNA mismatch repair pathway is absent or non-functional. Here, we report a study on the in vitro mismatch cleavage activity and in vivo function of an EndoMS homolog (SisEndoMS) from Sulfolobus islandicus REY15A, the model archaeon belonging to Crenarchaeota. SisEndoMS is highly active on duplex DNA containing G/T, G/G, and T/T mismatches. Interestingly, the cleavage activity of SisEndoMS is stimulated by the heterotrimeric PCNAs, and when Mn²⁺ was used as the co-factor instead of Mg²⁺, SisEndoMS was also active on DNA substrates containing C/T or A/G mismatches, suggesting that the endonuclease activity can be regulated by ion co-factors and accessory proteins. We compared the spontaneous mutation rate of the wild type strain REY15A and ∆endoMS by counter selection against 5-fluoroorotic acid (5-FOA). The endoMS knockout mutant had much higher spontaneous mutation rate (5.06 × 10⁻³) than that of the wild type (4.6 × 10⁻⁶). A mutation accumulation analysis also showed that the deletion mutant had a higher mutation occurrence than the wild type, with transition mutation being the dominant, suggesting that SisEndoMS is responsible for mutation avoidance in this hyperthermophilic archaeon. Overexpression of the wild type SisEndoMS in S. islandicus resulted in retarded growth and abnormal cell morphology, similar to strains overexpressing Hje and Hjc, the Holliday junction endonucleases. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that SisEndoMS overexpression led to upregulation of distinct gene including the CRISPR-Cas IIIB system, methyltransferases, and glycosyltransferases, which are mainly localized to specific regions in the chromosome. Collectively, our results support that EndoMS proteins represent a noncanonical DNA repair pathway in Archaea. The mechanism of the mismatch repair pathway in Sulfolobus which have a single chromosome is discussed.

Phosphorylation of the Archaeal Holliday Junction Resolvase Hjc Inhibits Its Catalytic Activity and Facilitates DNA Repair in Sulfolobus islandicus REY15A

Protein phosphorylation is one of the main protein post-translational modifications and regulates DNA repair in eukaryotes. Archaeal genomes encode eukaryotic-like DNA repair proteins and protein kinases (ePKs), and several proteins involved in homologous recombination repair (HRR) including Hjc, a conserved Holliday junction (HJ) resolvase in Archaea, undergo phosphorylation, indicating that phosphorylation plays important roles in HRR. Herein, we performed phosphorylation analysis of Hjc by various ePKs from Sulfolobus islandicus. It was shown that SiRe_0171, SiRe_2030, and SiRe_2056, were able to phosphorylate Hjc in vitro. These ePKs phosphorylated Hjc at different Ser/Thr residues: SiRe_0171 on S34, SiRe_2030 on both S9 and T138, and SiRe_2056 on T138. The HJ cleavage activity of the phosphorylation-mimic mutants was analyzed and the results showed that the cleavage activity of S34E was completely lost and that of S9E had greatly reduced. S. islandicus strain expressing S34E in replacement of the wild type Hjc was resistant to higher doses of DNA damaging agents. Furthermore, SiRe_0171 deletion mutant exhibited higher sensitivity to DNA damaging agents, suggesting that Hjc phosphorylation by SiRe_0171 enhanced the DNA repair capability. Our results revealed that HJ resolvase is regulated by protein phosphorylation, reminiscent of the regulation of eukaryotic HJ resolvases GEN1 and Yen1.

The archaeal ATPase PINA interacts with the helicase Hjm via its carboxyl terminal KH domain remodeling and processing replication fork and Holliday junction

PINA is a novel ATPase and DNA helicase highly conserved in Archaea, the third domain of life. The PINA from Sulfolobus islandicus (SisPINA) forms a hexameric ring in crystal and solution. The protein is able to promote Holliday junction (HJ) migration and physically and functionally interacts with Hjc, the HJ specific endonuclease. Here, we show that SisPINA has direct physical interaction with Hjm (Hel308a), a helicase presumably targeting replication forks. In vitro biochemical analysis revealed that Hjm, Hjc, and SisPINA are able to coordinate HJ migration and cleavage in a concerted way. Deletion of the carboxyl 13 amino acid residues impaired the interaction between SisPINA and Hjm. Crystal structure analysis showed that the carboxyl 70 amino acid residues fold into a type II KH domain which, in other proteins, functions in binding RNA or ssDNA. The KH domain not only mediates the interactions of PINA with Hjm and Hjc but also regulates the hexameric assembly of PINA. Our results collectively suggest that SisPINA, Hjm and Hjc work together to function in replication fork regression, HJ formation and HJ cleavage.

Hydroxyurea-Mediated Cytotoxicity Without Inhibition of Ribonucleotide Reductase

In many organisms, hydroxyurea (HU) inhibits class I ribonucleotide reductase, leading to lowered cellular pools of deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates. The reduced levels for DNA precursors is believed to cause replication fork stalling. Upon treatment of the hyperthermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus with HU, we observe dose-dependent cell cycle arrest, accumulation of DNA double-strand breaks, stalled replication forks, and elevated levels of recombination structures. However, Sulfolobus has a HU-insensitive class II ribonucleotide reductase, and we reveal that HU treatment does not significantly impact cellular DNA precursor pools. Profiling of protein and transcript levels reveals modulation of a specific subset of replication initiation and cell division genes. Notably, the selective loss of the regulatory subunit of the primase correlates with cessation of replication initiation and stalling of replication forks. Furthermore, we find evidence for a detoxification response induced by HU treatment.

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Sulfolobus has a HU-insensitive class II ribonucleotide reductase

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HU impairs DNA replication and is toxic to Sulfolobus cells

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HU treatment leads to selective loss of the regulatory subunit of DNA primase

Functional assignment of multiple ESCRT-III homologs in cell division and budding in Sulfolobus islandicus

The archaea Sulfolobus utilizes the ESCRT-III-based machinery for cell division. This machinery comprises three proteins: CdvA, Eukaryotic-like ESCRT-III and Vps4. In addition to ESCRT-III, Sulfolobus cells also encode three other ESCRT-III homologs termed ESCRT-III-1, -2 and -3. Herein, we show that ESCRT-III-1 and -2 in S. islandicus REY15A are localized at midcell between segregating chromosomes, indicating that both are involved in cell division. Genetic analysis reveals that escrt-III-2 is indispensable for cell viability and cells with reduced overall level of ESCRT-III-1 exhibit growth retardation and cytokinesis defect with chain-like cell morphology. In contrast, escrt-III-3 is dispensable for cell division. We show that S. islandicus REY15A cells generate buds when infected with S. tengchongensis spindle shaped-virus 2 (STSV2) or when ESCRT-III-3 is over-expressed. Interestingly, Δescrt-III-3 cells infected with STSV2 do not produce buds. These results suggest that ESCRT-III-3 plays an important role in budding. In addition, cells over-expressing the C-terminal truncated mutants of ESCRT-III, ESCRT-III-1 and ESCRT-III-2 are maintained predominantly at the early, late, and membrane abscission stages of cell division respectively, suggesting a crucial role of the ESCRTs at different stages of membrane ingression. Intriguingly, intercellular bridge and midbody-like structures are observed in cells over-expressing MIM2-truncated mutant of ESCRT-III-2.

Structure and Function of a Novel ATPase that Interacts with Holliday Junction Resolvase Hjc and Promotes Branch Migration

Holliday junction (HJ) is a hallmark intermediate in DNA recombination and must be processed by dissolution (for double HJ) or resolution to ensure genome stability. Although HJ resolvases have been identified in all domains of life, there is a long-standing effort to search in prokaryotes and eukarya for proteins promoting HJ migration. Here, we report the structural and functional characterization of a novel ATPase, Sulfolobus islandicusPilT N-terminal-domain-containing ATPase (SisPINA), encoded by the gene adjacent to the resolvase Hjc coding gene. PINA is conserved in archaea and vital for S. islandicus viability. Purified SisPINA forms hexameric rings in the crystalline state and in solution, similar to the HJ migration helicase RuvB in Gram-negative bacteria. Structural analysis suggests that ATP binding and hydrolysis cause conformational changes in SisPINA to drive branch migration. Further studies reveal that SisPINA interacts with SisHjc and coordinates HJ migration and cleavage.

Knockout and functional analysis of two DExD/H-box family helicase genes in Sulfolobus islandicus REY15A

DExD/H-box helicases represent the largest family of helicases. They belong to superfamily 2 helicases and participate in nucleotide metabolism, ribosome biogenesis, and nucleocytoplasmic transport. The biochemical properties and structures of some DExD/H-box helicases in the archaea have been documented, but many of them have not been characterized; and reports on in vivo functional analyses are limited. In this study, we attempted gene knockout of 8 putative DExD/H-box helicases in Sulfolobus islandicus REY15A and obtained two deletion mutants, SiRe_0681 and SiRe_1605. We determined that ΔSiRe_0681 grew faster than wild type cells in the presence of methyl methanesulfonate (MMS). Flow cytometry analysis showed that this strain had fewer G1/S phase cells than the wild type, and the genes coding for cell division proteins were up-regulated. The stain ΔSiRe_1605 was more sensitive to MMS than the wild type cell, and many nucleotide metabolism and DNA repair enzymes were found to be down-regulated. Intriguingly, deletion of either gene led to silencing simultaneously of over 80 genes located at a specific region. This study provides a novel insight into the in vivo functions of predicted DExD/H-box family helicases in the archaea.

Understanding DNA Repair in Hyperthermophilic Archaea: Persistent Gaps and Other Reasons to Focus on the Fork

Although hyperthermophilic archaea arguably have a great need for efficient DNA repair, they lack members of several DNA repair protein families broadly conserved among bacteria and eukaryotes. Conversely, the putative DNA repair genes that do occur in these archaea often do not generate the expected phenotype when deleted. The prospect that hyperthermophilic archaea have some unique strategies for coping with DNA damage and replication errors has intellectual and technological appeal, but resolving this question will require alternative coping mechanisms to be proposed and tested experimentally. This review evaluates a combination of four enigmatic properties that distinguishes the hyperthermophilic archaea from all other organisms: DNA polymerase stalling at dU, apparent lack of conventional NER, lack of MutSL homologs, and apparent essentiality of homologous recombination proteins. Hypothetical damage-coping strategies that could explain this set of properties may provide new starting points for efforts to define how archaea differ from conventional models of DNA repair and replication fidelity.