Ginseng and obesity: Observations from assorted perspectives

Molecular Action of Herbal Medicine in Physiology of Erection and its Dysfunction

Erection is a physiological process that involves vascular, hormonal, and nervous factors. Erectile dysfunction is one of the male sexual problems that occur globally and is reported to affect men's quality of life. Herbal plants have been widely used for disease treatment, including the problem of erectile dysfunction. This paper aims to review the molecular potential of various plants in the physiology of erection and to treat erectile dysfunction. The literature search was carried out through the Pubmed and Google Scholar databases regarding the molecular mechanisms of herbal plants and their potential involvement in the physiology of erection and overcoming erectile dysfunction. This paper focuses on six herbal plants: Panax ginseng, Ginkgo biloba, Epimedium, Black pepper, Tribulus terrestris, and Eurycoma longifolia. The six herbal plants have involvement in the erection process and have molecular potential in the treatment of erectile problems

How Does Ginsenoside Rh2 Mitigate Adipogenesis in Cultured Cells and Obese Mice?

Ginsenoside Rh2, an intermediate metabolite of ginseng, but not naturally occurring, has recently drawn attention because of its anticancer effect. However, it is not clear if and how Rh2 inhibits preadipocytes differentiation. In the present study, we hypothesized that ginsenoside Rh2 attenuates adipogenesis through regulating the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) pathway both in cells and obese mice. Different concentrations of Rh2 were applied both in 3T3-L1 cells and human primary preadipocytes to determine if Rh2 inhibits cell differentiation. Dietary Rh2 was administered to obese mice to determine if Rh2 prevents obesity in vivo. The mRNA and protein expression of PPAR-γ pathway molecules in cells and tissues were measured by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and Western blot, respectively. Our results show that Rh2 dose-dependently (30-60 μM) inhibited cell differentiation in 3T3-L1 cells (44.5% ± 7.8% of control at 60 μM). This inhibitory effect is accompanied by the attenuation of the protein and/or mRNA expression of adipogenic markers including PPAR-γ and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein alpha, fatty acid synthase, fatty acid binding protein 4, and perilipin significantly (p < 0.05). Moreover, Rh2 significantly (p < 0.05) inhibited differentiation in human primary preadipocytes at much lower concentrations (5-15 μM). Furthermore, dietary intake of Rh2 (0.1 g Rh2/kg diet, w/w for eight weeks) significantly (p < 0.05) reduced protein PPAR-γ expression in liver and hepatic glutathione reductase and lowered fasting blood glucose. These results suggest that ginsenoside Rh2 dose-dependently inhibits adipogenesis through down-regulating the PPAR-γ pathway, and Rh2 may be a potential agent in preventing obesity in vivo.

Comparative study on anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties of hydroponic ginseng and soil-cultured ginseng

Hydroponic ginseng (HPG) and soil-cultured ginseng (SCG) were extracted in 70% methanol to quantify relative content of 8 ginsenosides and polyphenolic compounds, and flavonoids to compare their antioxidative effects. Level of nitric oxide and inflammatory targets produced in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells were measured. 2-year-old HPG shoots contained highest levels of ginsenoside Rb2, Rb3, Rd, Re, and F1. Total polyphenol content was highest in shoots of HPG, followed by roots of HPG and SCG. HPG shoots had high radical scavenging activity and an elevated ability to inhibit linoleic acid oxidation. 2-year-old HPG shoots reduced nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 cells by 47%, whereas 6-year-old SCG roots reduced it by only 21%. HPG also significantly lowered mRNA expression of iNOS, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, as determined by RT-PCR, compared to SCGs. Therefore, HPG may have potential for utilization as an alternative to SCG, because of superior antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

Effects of Panax ginseng on Obesity in Animal Models: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVE

To determine the antiobesity effects of Panax ginseng in animals.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic search for all controlled trials (up to March 2017) that assessed the antiobesity effects of P. ginseng in animal obesity models in the PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane library, Web of Science, and Scopus databases. The primary outcome was final body weight measured at the longest follow-up time after administration of the intervention. The secondary outcome was the lipid profile. We assessed methodological quality using the SYRCLE risk of bias tool, and RevMan 5.3 was used to perform a meta-analysis. Finally, a subgroup analysis of parameters including intervention duration, animal models, and type of ginseng was performed.

RESULT

We identified 16 studies that met the inclusion criteria. Data from the meta-analysis indicated that the intervention group had a significantly lower body weight than the control group (SMD: -1.50, 95% CI: -1.90 to -1.11, χ2: 78.14, P < 0.0001, I2 = 58%). Final body weight was lower in an animal obesity model induced by high-fat diet than in genetic models. Also the intervention group had a significantly higher serum HDL level and lower serum LDL, TG, and TC level than the control group.

CONCLUSION

Our meta-analysis indicated that oral administration of P. ginseng significantly inhibits weight gain and improves serum lipid profiles in animal obesity models. However, causes of obesity and type of ginseng may affect treatment effects.

Potential of Natural Products in the Inhibition of Adipogenesis through Regulation of PPARγ Expression and/or Its Transcriptional Activity

Obesity is a global health problem characterized as an increase in the mass of adipose tissue. Adipogenesis is one of the key pathways that increases the mass of adipose tissue, by which preadipocytes mature into adipocytes through cell differentiation. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), the chief regulator of adipogenesis, has been acutely investigated as a molecular target for natural products in the development of anti-obesity treatments. In this review, the regulation of PPARγ expression by natural products through inhibition of CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein β (C/EBPβ) and the farnesoid X receptor (FXR), increased expression of GATA-2 and GATA-3 and activation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway were analyzed. Furthermore, the regulation of PPARγ transcriptional activity associated with natural products through the antagonism of PPARγ and activation of Sirtuin 1 (Sirt1) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) were discussed. Lastly, regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) by natural products, which might regulate both PPARγ expression and PPARγ transcriptional activity, was summarized. Understanding the role natural products play, as well as the mechanisms behind their regulation of PPARγ activity is critical for future research into their therapeutic potential for fighting obesity.

Structural investigation of ginsenoside Rf with PPARγ major transcriptional factor of adipogenesis and its impact on adipocyte

BACKGROUND

Adipocytes, which are the main cellular component of adipose tissue, are the building blocks of obesity. The nuclear hormone receptor PPARγ is a major regulator of adipocyte differentiation and development. Obesity, which is one of the most dangerous yet silent diseases of all time, is fast becoming a critical area of research focus.

METHODS

In this study, we initially aimed to investigate whether the ginsenoside Rf, a compound that is only present in Panax ginseng Meyer, interacts with PPARγ by molecular docking simulations. After we performed the docking simulation the result has been analyzed with several different software programs, including Discovery Studio, Pymol, Chimera, Ligplus, and Pose View. All of the programs identified the same mechanism of interaction between PPARγ and Rf, at the same active site. To determine the drug-like and biological activities of Rf, we calculate its absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxic (ADMET) and prediction of activity spectra for substances (PASS) properties. Considering the results obtained from the computational investigations, the focus was on the in vitro experiments.

RESULTS

Because the docking simulations predicted the formation of structural bonds between Rf and PPARγ, we also investigated whether any evidence for these bonds could be observed at the cellular level. These experiments revealed that Rf treatment of 3T3-L1 adipocytes downregulated the expression levels of PPARγ and perilipin, and also decreased the amount of lipid accumulated at different doses.

CONCLUSION

The ginsenoside Rf appears to be promising compound that could prove useful in antiobesity treatments.