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Smith JG, Krichbaum S, Montgomery L, Cox E, Katz JS. A preliminary analysis of the effect of individual differences on cognitive performance in young companion dogs. Anim Cogn 2024; 27:30. [PMID: 38557907 PMCID: PMC10984887 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-024-01868-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Many factors influence cognitive performance in dogs, including breed, temperament, rearing history, and training. Studies in working dog populations have demonstrated age-related improvements in cognitive task performance across the first years of development. However, the effect of certain factors, such as age, sex, and temperament, on cognitive performance in puppies has yet to be evaluated in a more diverse population of companion dogs. In this study, companion dogs under 12 months of age were tested once on two tasks purported to measure aspects of executive function: the delayed-search task (DST) and the detour reversal task (DRT). Owners also filled out the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) to evaluate how temperament influenced task performance. Contrary to prior research, performance did not improve with age on either task. However, the lack of age effects was likely the result of small sample sizes and individual differences across other factors influencing performance. Specifically, temperament differences as measured by the C-BARQ subscales for nonsocial fear and excitability predicted task performance on the DST, but the effect of temperament on task performance differed between males and females. Excitability also predicted performance on the DRT, but the effect depended on the age of the dog. In addition, no correlations were observed between task measures, indicating a lack of construct validity. Overall, these findings provide a preliminary analysis of factors that appear to influence cognitive task performance in young companion dogs and highlight suggestions for future research evaluating the impact of individual differences on cognitive performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan G Smith
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA.
- Canine Performance Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA.
- Auburn University, 104 Greene Hall, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA.
| | - Sarah Krichbaum
- Canine Performance Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Lane Montgomery
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Emma Cox
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Jeffrey S Katz
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
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2
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Gnanadesikan GE, Tandon D, Bray EE, Kennedy BS, Tennenbaum SR, MacLean EL, vonHoldt BM. Transposons in the Williams-Beuren Syndrome Critical Region are Associated with Social Behavior in Assistance Dogs. Behav Genet 2024; 54:196-211. [PMID: 38091228 DOI: 10.1007/s10519-023-10166-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/13/2024]
Abstract
A strong signature of selection in the domestic dog genome is found in a five-megabase region of chromosome six in which four structural variants derived from transposons have previously been associated with human-oriented social behavior, such as attentional bias to social stimuli and social interest in strangers. To explore these genetic associations in more phenotypic detail-as well as their role in training success in a specialized assistance dog program-we genotyped 1001 assistance dogs from Canine Companions for Independence®, including both successful graduates and dogs released from the training program for behaviors incompatible with their working role. We collected phenotypes on each dog using puppy-raiser questionnaires, trainer questionnaires, and both cognitive and behavioral tests. Using Bayesian mixed models, we found strong associations (95% credibility intervals excluding zero) between genotypes and certain behavioral measures, including separation-related problems, aggression when challenged or corrected, and reactivity to other dogs. Furthermore, we found moderate differences in the genotypes of dogs who graduated versus those who did not; insertions in GTF2I showed the strongest association with training success (β = 0.23, CI95% = - 0.04, 0.49), translating to an odds-ratio of 1.25 for one insertion. Our results provide insight into the role of each of these four transposons in canine sociability and may inform breeding and training practices for working dog organizations. Furthermore, the observed importance of the gene GTF2I supports the emerging consensus that variation in GTF2I genotypes and expression have important consequences for social behavior broadly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gitanjali E Gnanadesikan
- School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA.
- Cognitive Science Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA.
- Department of Anthropology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA.
| | - Dhriti Tandon
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, 08544, USA
| | - Emily E Bray
- School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
- Canine Companions for Independence, National Headquarters, Santa Rosa, CA, 95402, USA
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Arizona, Oro Valley, AZ, 85737, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Brenda S Kennedy
- Canine Companions for Independence, National Headquarters, Santa Rosa, CA, 95402, USA
| | - Stavi R Tennenbaum
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, 08544, USA
| | - Evan L MacLean
- School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
- Cognitive Science Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Arizona, Oro Valley, AZ, 85737, USA
- Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Bridgett M vonHoldt
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, 08544, USA
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Caddiell RMP, Cunningham RM, White PA, Lascelles BDX, Gruen ME. Pain sensitivity differs between dog breeds but not in the way veterinarians believe. FRONTIERS IN PAIN RESEARCH 2023; 4:1165340. [PMID: 37435196 PMCID: PMC10332458 DOI: 10.3389/fpain.2023.1165340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Veterinarians hold distinct breed-specific pain sensitivity beliefs that differ from the general public but are highly consistent with one another. This is remarkable as there is no current scientific evidence for biological differences in pain sensitivity across dog breeds. Therefore, the present study evaluated whether pain sensitivity thresholds differ across a set of dog breeds and, if so, whether veterinarians' pain sensitivity ratings explain these differences or whether these ratings are attributed to behavioral characteristics. Methods Pain sensitivity thresholds [using quantitative sensory testing (QST) methods] and canine behaviors (using owner questionnaires and emotional reactivity tests) were prospectively measured across selected dog breeds. Adult, healthy dogs from 10 dog breeds/breed types were recruited, representing breeds subjectively rated by veterinarians as high (chihuahua, German shepherd, Maltese, Siberian husky), average (border collie, Boston terrier, Jack Russell terrier), or low (golden retriever, pitbull, Labrador retriever) pain sensitivity. A final sample of 149 dogs was included in statistical analyses. Results Veterinarians' pain sensitivity ratings provided a minimal explanation for pain sensitivity thresholds measured using QST in dogs; however, dog breeds did differ in their pain sensitivity thresholds across the QST methods evaluated. Breed differences were observed for some aspects of emotional reactivity tests; however, these behavioral differences did not explain the differences in pain sensitivity thresholds found. Veterinarians' pain sensitivity ratings were positively associated with dog approach scores for the disgruntled stranger test suggesting that the way dogs greet strangers may be a factor influencing veterinarians' ratings of pain sensitivity across dog breeds. Conclusions and clinical relevance Overall, these findings highlight a need to investigate biological mechanisms that may explain breed differences in pain sensitivity because this may inform pain management recommendations. Further, future research should focus on when and how these breed-specific pain sensitivity beliefs developed in veterinarians, as veterinarians' beliefs could impact the recognition and treatment of pain for canine patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel M. P. Caddiell
- Comparative Behavioral Research, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
- Translational Research in Pain, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Rachael M. Cunningham
- Comparative Behavioral Research, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
- Translational Research in Pain, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Philip A. White
- Department of Statistics, College of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, United States
| | - B. Duncan X. Lascelles
- Translational Research in Pain, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
- Comparative Pain Research and Education Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
- Thurston Arthritis Centre, UNC School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
- Center for Translational Pain Research, Department of Anesthesiology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
| | - Margaret E. Gruen
- Comparative Behavioral Research, Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
- Comparative Pain Research and Education Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
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De la Fuente-Moreno E, Paredes-Ramos P, Carrasco-García A, Hernandez-Cruz B, Alvarado M, Edwards C. Salivary Cortisol in Guide Dogs. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:1981. [PMID: 37370493 DOI: 10.3390/ani13121981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Guide dogs work for extended periods and are exposed to multiple environmental stimuli that could lead to higher stress compared with companion dogs. Cortisol is the main hormone associated with stress in most mammals. This study included seven guide dogs and seven same-breed dogs that were trained as guide dogs but became companion dogs to compare their salivary cortisol levels before, during, and after a period of social isolation and exposure to a 110-decibel gunshot sound. Each dog was left alone in an empty room for 60 min. After 15 min, the dogs were exposed to the sound. We collected four saliva samples from each dog. The first one was taken 5 min before starting the social isolation period, and the following ones at 15, 30, and 45 min after the test started. A two-way ANOVA was used to compare the group effect and the time effect during isolation and noise exposure. The results showed higher levels of cortisol in the guide dogs compared with the companion dogs throughout the test. No differences were found in time or in the interaction between time and group. This suggests that being a guide dog increases levels of basal cortisol when compared with dogs that live as companion animals and family members.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pedro Paredes-Ramos
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Veracruzana, Veracruz 91190, Mexico
| | - Apolo Carrasco-García
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Veracruzana, Veracruz 91190, Mexico
| | - Bertha Hernandez-Cruz
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Veracruzana, Veracruz 91190, Mexico
| | - Mayvi Alvarado
- Instituto de Neuroetología, Xalapa Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa 91190, Mexico
| | - Claudia Edwards
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City 04510, Mexico
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5
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Following the human point: Research with nonhuman animals since Povinelli, Nelson, and Boysen (1990). Learn Behav 2023; 51:34-47. [PMID: 36175744 DOI: 10.3758/s13420-022-00546-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
For this special issue in honor of Dr. Sarah (Sally) Boysen's career, we review studies on point following in nonhuman animals. Of the 126 papers that we documented on this topic published since the publication of Povinelli, Nelson, and Boysen (1990, Journal of Comparative Psychology, 104, 203-210), 94 (75%) were published in the past 15 years, including 22 in the past 5 years, indicating that this topic is still an active area of interest in the field of animal behavior and cognition. We present results of a survey of publication trends, discussing the species tested and the sample sizes, and we note methodological considerations and current multilaboratory approaches. We then categorize and synthesize the research questions addressed in these studies, which have been at both the ultimate level (e.g., questions related to evolutionary adaptiveness and phylogenetic differences) and proximate level (e.g., questions related to experiential and temperamental processes). Throughout, we consider future directions for this area of research.
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Foraita M, Howell T, Bennett P. Executive Functions as Measured by the Dog Executive Function Scale (DEFS) over the Lifespan of Dogs. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13030533. [PMID: 36766423 PMCID: PMC9913113 DOI: 10.3390/ani13030533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Executive Functions (EFs) are needed for effortful self-regulation of behaviour and are known to change over the lifespan in humans. In domestic dogs, EFs can be assessed through behavioural rating scales, such as the Dog Executive Function Scale (DEFS). The primary aim of this study was to investigate whether the DEFS, developed initially using a sample of adult dogs, can be used in juvenile (<1 year) and senior (>8 years) dogs. Confirmatory factor analysis of a juvenile and senior dog sample led to good model fit indices, indicating that juvenile and senior dogs' EF structure follows the same functional organisation as found in the DEFS. The secondary aim was to analyse the lifespan development of EFs. Analysis of subscale scores revealed multifaceted relationships with age for four subscales. Working Memory and Attention Towards Owner showed the u-shaped curve traditionally associated with the lifespan development of EFs. Forms of inhibition showed complex associations with age, i.e., Delay Inhibition declined in aging and Motor Regulation increased during aging. Training history and Working Status influenced performance independent of age. More highly trained dogs and working dogs exhibited higher EF skills. Training history appeared more important for EF in non-working dogs than working dogs, perhaps because all working dogs receive a high level of training.
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Junttila S, Valros A, Mäki K, Väätäjä H, Reunanen E, Tiira K. Breed differences in social cognition, inhibitory control, and spatial problem-solving ability in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). Sci Rep 2022; 12:22529. [PMID: 36581704 PMCID: PMC9800387 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-26991-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The extraordinary genetic and behavioural diversity of dog breeds provides a unique opportunity for investigating the heritability of cognitive traits, such as problem-solving ability, social cognition, inhibitory control, and memory. Previous studies have mainly investigated cognitive differences between breed groups, and information on individual dog breeds is scarce. As a result, findings are often contradictory and inconsistent. The aim of this study was to provide more clarity on between-breed differences of cognitive traits in dogs. We examined the performance of 13 dog breeds (N = 1002 dogs) in a standardized test battery. Significant breed differences were found for understanding of human communicative gestures, following a human's misleading gesture, spatial problem-solving ability in a V-detour task, inhibitory control in a cylinder test, and persistence and human-directed behaviour during an unsolvable task. Breeds also differed significantly in their behaviour towards an unfamiliar person, activity level, and exploration of a novel environment. No significant differences were identified in tasks measuring memory or logical reasoning. Breed differences thus emerged mainly in tasks measuring social cognition, problem-solving, and inhibitory control. Our results suggest that these traits may have come under diversifying artificial selection in different breeds. These results provide a deeper understanding on breed-specific traits in dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saara Junttila
- grid.7737.40000 0004 0410 2071Department of Production Animal Medicine, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Anna Valros
- grid.7737.40000 0004 0410 2071Department of Production Animal Medicine, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | | | - Heli Väätäjä
- grid.448926.50000 0004 4649 1976Digital Solutions, Lapland University of Applied Sciences, Jokiväylä 11C, 96300 Rovaniemi, Finland
| | - Elisa Reunanen
- grid.1374.10000 0001 2097 1371Department of Finnish and Finno-Ugric Languages, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Katriina Tiira
- smartDOG Ltd, 05800 Hyvinkää, Finland ,grid.7737.40000 0004 0410 2071Department of Equine and Small Animal Medicine, University of Helsinki, 00014 Helsinki, Finland
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Cavalli C, Dzik M, Brarda M, Bentosela M. Trained dogs do not give up. Effects of advanced training on the persistence of domestic dogs. Behav Processes 2022; 203:104769. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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Marcato M, Kenny J, O’Riordan R, O’Mahony C, O’Flynn B, Galvin P. Assistance dog selection and performance assessment methods using behavioural and physiological tools and devices. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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10
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Foraita M, Howell T, Bennett P. Development of the dog executive function scale (DEFS) for adult dogs. Anim Cogn 2022; 25:1479-1491. [PMID: 35579766 PMCID: PMC9113072 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01629-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Executive functions (EFs) are cognitive processes that are used to effortfully self-regulate behaviour and might be important for dogs’ success in working and pet roles. Currently, studies are assessing dogs’ EF skills through often laborious cognitive measures, leading to small sample sizes and lacking measures of reliability. A complementary method is needed. The aim of this study was to develop a dog executive function scale (DEFS) for adult dogs. Focus groups were held with people working with dogs professionally to refine a pool of items describing dog behaviours related to EF. A survey was distributed online to a convenience sample of N = 714 owners of adult dogs. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis identified six distinguishable factors named behavioural flexibility, motor inhibition, attention towards owner, instruction following, delay inhibition and working memory. These factors appear similar to factors identified in human EF scales. Working dogs exhibit higher EF scores on the DEFS than non-working dogs. Dogs sourced from breeders exhibited higher DEFS scores than dogs sourced from shelters, and the amount of training received positively correlated with dogs’ DEFS scores. The DEFS requires further validation with cognitive measures. The DEFS could then be used by researchers to complement assessment of dogs’ EF skills through cognitive measures or assess dogs’ EF skills in large samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maike Foraita
- Anthrozoology Research Group, School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Bendigo, Australia.
| | - Tiffani Howell
- Anthrozoology Research Group, School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Bendigo, Australia
| | - Pauleen Bennett
- Anthrozoology Research Group, School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Bendigo, Australia
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11
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Evaluating ADHD Assessment for Dogs: A Replication Study. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12070807. [PMID: 35405798 PMCID: PMC8997028 DOI: 10.3390/ani12070807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The family dog, in its natural environment, exhibits neuropsychological deficits redolent of human psychiatric disorders, including behaviours similar to human Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms. For dogs, Vas and colleagues developed a 13-item questionnaire to measure inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity (Dog ARS; 2007). We re-assessed, in a large sample of dogs (N = 319), psychometric properties of the Dog ARS, to identify possible limitations as a basis for further development. We examined the cross-study stability of factor structure and 40-day temporal stability of item and subscale scores and compared owner-report with expert (dog trainer)-report (n = 86), paralleling human parent/teacher assessments. To identify ambiguous items, we administered a modified version (including “I don’t know” options, N = 520) to a different sample. We could replicate the factor structure with evidence of good internal consistency and test–retest reliability of both subscales. Agreement between owner and trainer ratings was fair (inattention) and moderate (hyperactivity/impulsivity). Three ambiguous items were identified. Overall, we claim that the Dog ARS is a reliable tool to assess ADHD-like behaviour in dogs, but in its current form, it is not suitable to detect diagnosable individuals, as it does not comprise items assessing functional impairment, and also, the inclusion of owner-expert ratings in the evaluation process would be necessary.
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12
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Working memory and inhibition in 7.5-week-old Seeing Eye Dog puppies. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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13
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Rowell MK, Rymer TL. Exploration influences problem solving in the fawn‐footed mosaic‐tailed rat (
Melomys cervinipes
). Ethology 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.13166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Misha Kyla Rowell
- College of Science and Engineering James Cook University Cairns QLD Australia
- Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Sciences James Cook University Cairns QLD Australia
| | - Tasmin Lee Rymer
- College of Science and Engineering James Cook University Cairns QLD Australia
- Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Sciences James Cook University Cairns QLD Australia
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Foraita M, Howell T, Bennett P. Environmental influences on development of executive functions in dogs. Anim Cogn 2021; 24:655-675. [PMID: 33611642 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-021-01489-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Executive functions (EFs) are a set of cognitive processes used for effortful self-regulation of behaviour. They include inhibition, working memory, cognitive flexibility and, in some models, attention. In humans, socioeconomic factors and life experiences shape development of EFs. Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) must often regulate their behaviour in the human environment (e.g. no jumping up on humans or chasing cats), and life experiences also probably influence the development of EFs in dogs. Research into dog cognition and behaviour has been thriving, and some methods used to explore these concepts (e.g. object-choice task, questionnaires measuring traits like distraction and aggression) are likely to be sensitive to differences in EFs, even if that is not their stated aim. Here we examine relevant studies to identify experiential factors which may influence the development of EFs in dogs living in human care. These are early experience, training, housing and stress. We conclude that the development of dogs' EFs may be negatively affected by hardships, and positively by surmountable challenges, early in life. Training methods appear important, with punishment-based methods leading to poorer dog EFs. Kennel environments seem to affect dog EFs negatively. While mild stressors might enhance the development of EFs, too much stress seems to have negative effects. Regulation of behaviour, a key outcome of EFs, is crucial for dogs' integration into human society. We should, therefore, strive to better understand how the environment shapes dogs' EFs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maike Foraita
- Anthrozoology Research Group, School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Tiffani Howell
- Anthrozoology Research Group, School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Pauleen Bennett
- Anthrozoology Research Group, School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia
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Dorman DC, Foster ML, Lazarowski L. Training with Multiple Structurally Related Odorants Fails to Improve Generalization of Ammonium Nitrate Detection in Domesticated Dogs ( Canis familiaris). Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11010213. [PMID: 33467128 PMCID: PMC7829996 DOI: 10.3390/ani11010213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Domestic dogs are used by military and police forces to detect improvised explosive devices (IEDs) and other explosives. A challenge with training explosive detection dogs is that the ingredients used by someone to make an IED can vary. It is therefore critical that dogs be able to detect an IED with unfamiliar ingredients. This ability can be improved if the dog’s training allows them to categorize similar odors together. Many IEDs are created using ammonium nitrate, which was the focus of our study. Based on preliminary odor training performance, we equally assigned dogs to two experimental groups. Dogs in the first group were trained with two odors related to ammonium nitrate, while dogs in the second group were trained to six related odors. We anticipated that dogs trained to six odors would be more likely to form a category. However, this was not the case since dogs in both experimental groups were unable to form a category that allowed them to identify a novel ammonium nitrate mixture. Based on our results, the use of authentic explosive materials likely remains the most cost-effective and efficient way to train explosive scent detection dogs. Abstract A critical aspect of canine scent detection involves the animal’s ability to respond to odors based on prior odor training. In the current study, dogs (n = 12) were initially trained on an olfactory simple discrimination task using vanillin as the target odorant. Based on their performance on this task, dogs were assigned to experimental groups. Dogs in group 1 and 2 (n = 5 dogs/group; 1 dog/group were removed due to low motivation or high error rates) were trained with either two or six forms of ammonium nitrate (AN), respectively. Dogs were then assessed with a mock explosive with AN and powdered aluminum. Dogs in both groups failed to respond to the novel AN-aluminum odor. Mean success rates were 56 ± 5 and 54 ± 4% for groups 1 and 2, respectively. Overall, and individual dog performance was not statistically higher than chance indicating that dogs did not generalize from AN to a similar AN-based odorant at reliable levels desired for explosive detection dogs. These results suggest the use of authentic explosive materials, without the added complication of including category-learning methods, likely remains a cost-effective and efficient way to train explosive scent detection dogs.
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Dog cognitive development: a longitudinal study across the first 2 years of life. Anim Cogn 2020; 24:311-328. [PMID: 33113034 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-020-01443-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
While our understanding of adult dog cognition has grown considerably over the past 20 years, relatively little is known about the ontogeny of dog cognition. To assess the development and longitudinal stability of cognitive traits in dogs, we administered a battery of tasks to 160 candidate assistance dogs at 2 timepoints. The tasks were designed to measure diverse aspects of cognition, ranging from executive function (e.g., inhibitory control, reversal learning, memory) to sensory discrimination (e.g., vision, audition, olfaction) to social interaction with humans. Subjects first participated as 8-10-week-old puppies, and then were retested on the same tasks at ~ 21 months of age. With few exceptions, task performance improved with age, with the largest effects observed for measures of executive function and social gaze. Results also indicated that individual differences were both early emerging and enduring; for example, social attention to humans, use of human communicative signals, independent persistence at a problem, odor discrimination, and inhibitory control all exhibited moderate levels of rank-order stability between the two timepoints. Using multiple regression, we found that young adult performance on many cognitive tasks could be predicted from a set of cognitive measures collected in early development. Our findings contribute to knowledge about changes in dog cognition across early development as well as the origins and developmental stability of individual differences.
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17
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Chapagain D, Wallis LJ, Range F, Affenzeller N, Serra J, Virányi Z. Behavioural and cognitive changes in aged pet dogs: No effects of an enriched diet and lifelong training. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0238517. [PMID: 32936808 PMCID: PMC7494100 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0238517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Dogs demonstrate behavioural changes and cognitive decline during aging. Compared to laboratory dogs, little is known about aging in pet dogs exposed to different environments and nutrition. In this study, we examined the effects of age, an enriched diet and lifelong training on different behavioural and cognitive measures in 119 pet dogs (>6yrs). Dogs were maintained on either an enriched diet or a control diet for one year. Lifelong training was calculated using a questionnaire where owners filled in their dog's training experiences to date. Before commencing the diet and after one year of dietary treatment, they were tested in the Modified Vienna Canine Cognitive Battery (MVCCB) consisting of 11 subtests to examine correlated individual differences in a set of tasks measuring general, social and physical cognition and related behaviours. Fourty two behavioural variables were coded and were subjected to principle component analyses for variable reduction. Twelve subtest level components and two Z-transformed variables were subjected to exploratory factor analysis which resulted in six final factors: Problem solving, Trainability, Sociability, Boldness, Activity-independence and Dependency. Problem solving, Sociability, Boldness, and Dependency showed a linear decline with age, suggesting that the MVCCB can be used as a tool to measure behavioural and cognitive decline in aged pet dogs. An enriched diet and lifelong training had no effect on these factors, calling attention to the fact that the real world impact of nutritional and other interventions in possibly counteracting the effects of aging, should be further investigated in pet dogs living under diverse conditions, in order to understand their ultimate effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Durga Chapagain
- Clever Dog Lab, Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Domestication Lab, Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Lisa J. Wallis
- Department of Livestock and One Health, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
- Department of Ethology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Friederike Range
- Clever Dog Lab, Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Domestication Lab, Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Nadja Affenzeller
- Department/Clinic for Companion Animals and Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Zsófia Virányi
- Clever Dog Lab, Comparative Cognition, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Medical University of Vienna, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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18
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Lazarowski L, Waggoner LP, Krichbaum S, Singletary M, Haney P, Rogers B, Angle C. Selecting Dogs for Explosives Detection: Behavioral Characteristics. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:597. [PMID: 33088829 PMCID: PMC7493654 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Detection dogs are widely considered the most effective and adaptive method for explosives detection. Increases in emerging sophisticated threats are accelerating the demand for highly capable explosives detection, causing a strain on available supplies of quality canines worldwide. These strains are further compounded by rigorous behavioral standards required to meet mission-specific capabilities, leading to high rates of dogs disqualified from training or deployment. Ample research has explored the behavioral characteristics important for assistance, guide, and other traditional working roles, while those corresponding to more specialized tasks such as detection of explosives are not as well-understood. In this review we aim to identify the behavioral characteristics important for operational tasks of explosives detection dogs, contrasting with that of other working roles and highlighting key differences between explosives and other types of detection dogs. Further, we review the available research on methods for assessing and selecting candidate detection dogs and make recommendations for future directions and applications to the industry. Improvements and standardization in assessment technology allowing for the identification and enhancement of behavioral characteristics will be key to advancing canine detection technology in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Lazarowski
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Lowell Paul Waggoner
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Sarah Krichbaum
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States.,Department of Psychology, College of Liberal Arts, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Melissa Singletary
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States.,Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Pamela Haney
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Bart Rogers
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Craig Angle
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
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19
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Bray EE, Gruen ME, Gnanadesikan GE, Horschler DJ, Levy KM, Kennedy BS, Hare BA, MacLean EL. Cognitive characteristics of 8- to 10-week-old assistance dog puppies. Anim Behav 2020; 166:193-206. [PMID: 32719570 PMCID: PMC7384752 DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
To characterize the early ontogeny of dog cognition, we tested 168 domestic dog, Canis familiaris, puppies (97 females, 71 males; mean age = 9.2 weeks) in a novel test battery based on previous tasks developed and employed with adolescent and adult dogs. Our sample consisted of Labrador retrievers, golden retrievers and Labrador × golden retriever crosses from 65 different litters at Canine Companions for Independence, an organization that breeds, trains and places assistance dogs for people with disabilities. Puppies participated in a 3-day cognitive battery that consisted of 14 tasks measuring different cognitive abilities and temperament traits such as executive function (e.g. inhibitory control, reversal learning, working memory), use of social cues, sensory discriminations and reactivity to and recovery from novel situations. At 8-10 weeks of age, and despite minimal experience with humans, puppies reliably used a variety of cooperative-communicative gestures from humans. Puppies accurately remembered the location of hidden food for delays of up to 20 s, and succeeded in a variety of visual, olfactory and auditory discrimination problems. They also showed some skill at executive function tasks requiring inhibitory control and reversal learning, although they scored lower on these tasks than is typical in adulthood. Taken together, our results confirm the early emergence of sensitivity to human communication in dogs and contextualize these skills within a broad array of other cognitive abilities measured at the same stage of ontogeny.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily E Bray
- Arizona Canine Cognition Center, School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
- Canine Companions for Independence, National Headquarters, Santa Rosa, CA, U.S.A
| | - Margaret E Gruen
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, U.S.A
| | - Gitanjali E Gnanadesikan
- Arizona Canine Cognition Center, School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
- Cognitive Science Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
| | - Daniel J Horschler
- Arizona Canine Cognition Center, School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
- Cognitive Science Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
| | - Kerinne M Levy
- Canine Companions for Independence, National Headquarters, Santa Rosa, CA, U.S.A
| | - Brenda S Kennedy
- Canine Companions for Independence, National Headquarters, Santa Rosa, CA, U.S.A
| | - Brian A Hare
- Duke Canine Cognition Center, Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, U.S.A
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, U.S.A
| | - Evan L MacLean
- Arizona Canine Cognition Center, School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
- Cognitive Science Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
- Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, U.S.A
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20
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Gnanadesikan GE, Hare B, Snyder-Mackler N, Call J, Kaminski J, Miklósi Á, MacLean EL. Breed Differences in Dog Cognition Associated with Brain-Expressed Genes and Neurological Functions. Integr Comp Biol 2020; 60:976-990. [PMID: 32726413 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icaa112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Given their remarkable phenotypic diversity, dogs present a unique opportunity for investigating the genetic bases of cognitive and behavioral traits. Our previous work demonstrated that genetic relatedness among breeds accounts for a substantial portion of variation in dog cognition. Here, we investigated the genetic architecture of breed differences in cognition, seeking to identify genes that contribute to variation in cognitive phenotypes. To do so, we combined cognitive data from the citizen science project Dognition.com with published breed-average genetic polymorphism data, resulting in a dataset of 1654 individuals with cognitive phenotypes representing 49 breeds. We conducted a breed-average genome-wide association study to identify specific polymorphisms associated with breed differences in inhibitory control, communication, memory, and physical reasoning. We found five single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that reached genome-wide significance after Bonferroni correction, located in EML1, OR52E2, HS3ST5, a U6 spliceosomal RNA, and a long noncoding RNA. When we combined results across multiple SNPs within the same gene, we identified 188 genes implicated in breed differences in cognition. This gene set included more genes than expected by chance that were (1) differentially expressed in brain tissue and (2) involved in nervous system functions including peripheral nervous system development, Wnt signaling, presynapse assembly, and synaptic vesicle exocytosis. These results advance our understanding of the genetic underpinnings of complex cognitive phenotypes and identify specific genetic variants for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gitanjali E Gnanadesikan
- School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.,Cognitive Science Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Brian Hare
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA.,Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Noah Snyder-Mackler
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.,Center for Evolution and Medicine, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA.,School of Life Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
| | - Josep Call
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Juliane Kaminski
- Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
| | - Ádám Miklósi
- Department of Ethology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary.,MTA-ELTE Comparative Ethology Research Group, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Evan L MacLean
- School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.,Cognitive Science Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.,Psychology Department, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA.,College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
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21
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Albert TG, Schiel N, Souto A. The white-eared opossum failed to understand the parallel strings task: studying a primitive mammal under natural conditions. Anim Cogn 2020; 23:871-880. [PMID: 32394147 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-020-01392-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2019] [Revised: 02/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The present study aimed to investigate if the white-eared opossum under natural conditions is capable of spontaneously solving the parallel string task. The experimental study with this primitive mammal was carried out on fifteen naïve animals of both sexes in northeastern Brazil. The parallel strings task was arranged in apparatuses with a vertical and a horizontal arrangement. A food reward (a slice of banana) was connected at the extremity of one string. A total of 505 videos were recorded using trap cameras. Despite the observed interest in obtaining the bait, the number of attempts to reach it and the use of the strings as support (trying to directly reach the bait in the vertical apparatus), the individuals were unable to pull any of the strings, suggesting that they could not understand the problem. The present study points to the relevance of using the species Didelphis albiventris and other species from this family (e.g., D. virginiana) to broaden our knowledge about the cognitive capacity of mammalian species. In addition, the opossums might represent an advisable path to better understand the evolution of cognition in this group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiani G Albert
- Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Recife, Brasil
| | - Nicola Schiel
- Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Recife, Brasil
| | - Antonio Souto
- Departamento de Zoologia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Avenida Professor Moraes Rego, 1235, Cidade Universitária, 50670-901, Recife, PE, Brasil.
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22
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Lazarowski L, Krichbaum S, Waggoner LP, Katz JS. The development of problem-solving abilities in a population of candidate detection dogs (Canis familiaris). Anim Cogn 2020; 23:755-768. [PMID: 32333134 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-020-01387-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Both ontogenetic and phylogenetic factors have shaped dogs' cognitive capabilities, resulting in a heightened social sensitivity at the apparent cost of non-social problem-solving abilities. Research has suggested that training history and life experience can influence problem-solving abilities in dogs. However, the ontogenetic development of problem-solving abilities in dogs has been less explored. We tested a population of candidate detection dogs of various ages across the first year of development on four well-established problem-solving tasks targeting different cognitive domains (i.e., cylinder, A-not-B barrier, delayed search, and spatial transposition tasks). We examined developmental effects by comparing cognitive task performance across three age groups. Age-related improvements for all four cognitive measures indicate developmental increases in processes related to inhibitory control, attention, and spatial cognition between 3 and 12 months of age. Additionally, we found some relationships between cognitive measures and detection dog performance measures, though effects were not as robust. We discuss the results in the context of canine cognitive development and corresponding effects of phylogeny and ontogeny, as well as potential applications to working dog training and selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Lazarowski
- Canine Performance Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA.
| | - Sarah Krichbaum
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - L Paul Waggoner
- Canine Performance Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Jeffrey S Katz
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
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23
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Tiira K, Tikkanen A, Vainio O. Inhibitory control – Important trait for explosive detection performance in police dogs? Appl Anim Behav Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2020.104942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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24
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Savalli C, Albuquerque N, Vasconcellos AS, Ramos D, de Mello FT, Mills DS. Assessment of emotional predisposition in dogs using PANAS (Positive and Negative Activation Scale) and associated relationships in a sample of dogs from Brazil. Sci Rep 2019; 9:18386. [PMID: 31804536 PMCID: PMC6895085 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-54645-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The English version of the Positive and Negative Activation Scale (PANAS) is a useful tool for the assessment of dog temperament, helping to identify highly sensitive individuals that could be at risk of developing fears, phobias and anxiety problems, and potentially depressive states. This study evaluated the association between dogs' and owners' characteristics and dog temperament in Brazil. To accomplish this, we adapted and validated a Portuguese language version of PANAS for dogs. Data from 1744 owner-dog dyads were analysed and a two-factor structure similar to the original PANAS was revealed that met the requirements for validity and internal consistency. We found that dogs owned by women, neutered dogs and those who live in single-dog households show higher negative activation. Moreover, the older the owner, the less the negative activation for dogs that are bought. We also found that the older the dog, the less the positive activation, but this score is higher in dogs that sleep inside the house. Interestingly, mixed-breed dogs scored higher for both negative and positive emotional activation compared to purebreds. These findings alongside the particular profile of dogs in Brazil, including its large population of mixed-breed, emphasise the value of cross-cultural investigations in order to develop a full understanding of dog behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Daniel S Mills
- Animal Behaviour Cognition and Welfare Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK
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25
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Cavalli C, Carballo F, Dzik MV, Bentosela M. Gazing as a help requesting behavior: a comparison of dogs participating in animal-assisted interventions and pet dogs. Anim Cogn 2019; 23:141-147. [PMID: 31720884 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-019-01324-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 10/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Dogs tend to gaze at humans when they are confronted with inaccessible food during an unsolvable task, which is often interpreted as a help requesting behavior. Dogs who participate in animal-assisted interventions (AAI) interact with many people during their lives and prior studies have emphasized the importance of gazing in their communication. We compared the behavior of AAI (n = 15) and pet (n = 16) dogs during an unsolvable task, using a container fixed to a wooden board with inaccessible food inside, while the owner and an unfamiliar woman stood facing each other at the sides of the board ignoring the dog. Results showed that AAI dogs spent significantly more time gazing and alternated their gaze more frequently between the container and the people than pet dogs. In addition, they spent more time in contact with the unfamiliar person. However, no significant differences were found in the time dogs of either group gazed towards the owner compared to the unfamiliar person, in the frequency of gaze alternation or in the time spent interacting with the apparatus. In line with prior studies, these results suggest that gazing may be a significant communicative response in AAI dogs, which could probably contribute to having a better coordination with their handler. A greater understanding of the characteristics of this population may aid the selection and training of AAI dogs, which is particularly relevant given the increased popularity of AAI nowadays.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Cavalli
- Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas A. Lanari, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Combatientes de Malvinas 3150, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Grupo de Investigación del Comportamiento en Cánidos (ICOC), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Combatientes de Malvinas 3150, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - F Carballo
- Instituto de investigaciones Biológicas y Biomédicas del Sur (INBIOSUR, CONICET-UNS), San Juan 670 Piso 1 (8000), Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - M V Dzik
- Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas A. Lanari, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Combatientes de Malvinas 3150, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Grupo de Investigación del Comportamiento en Cánidos (ICOC), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Combatientes de Malvinas 3150, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - M Bentosela
- Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas A. Lanari, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Combatientes de Malvinas 3150, Buenos Aires, Argentina. .,Grupo de Investigación del Comportamiento en Cánidos (ICOC), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Instituto de investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Universidad de Buenos Aires, Combatientes de Malvinas 3150, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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26
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27
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Bogaerts E, Moons CPH, Van Nieuwerburgh F, Peelman L, Saunders JH, Broeckx BJG. Rejections in an non-purpose bred assistance dog population: Reasons, consequences and methods for screening. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0218339. [PMID: 31194832 PMCID: PMC6564025 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0218339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 05/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Assistance dogs aid people with various impairments on a daily basis. To become an assistance dog, a strict selection procedure and intensive training period must be successfully completed. Consequently, not every dog acquired for this purpose, becomes an assistance dog. The purpose of this study was to investigate reasons for failure and the financial consequences thereof for assistance dog associations that do not have a dedicated breeding program for their dogs. Data were collected for a total of 537 dogs enlisted between 2001 and 2015 and purchased out of the general dog population by five Belgian assistance dog associations. Only 60 percent of the dogs actually became an assistance dog and the main reasons for failure were related to undesirable behavioural characteristics and orthopaedic disorders. The estimated average financial loss per rejected dog was found to be 10524 euro. A detailed comparison of the two most popular breeds (Golden Retriever and Labrador Retriever) within the guide dogs and mobility assistance dogs revealed no significant difference in probability of successfully completing the training. However, a comparison of orthopaedic screening methods revealed a higher rejection with computed tomography for elbow dysplasia and laxity-based radiographical techniques for hip dysplasia compared to radiography and the standard ventrodorsal hip extend radiograph alone, respectively. Based on these results, we provide several suggestions to increase the probability of success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelien Bogaerts
- Department of Medical Imaging and Small Animal Orthopaedics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
- * E-mail: (EB); (BB); (JS)
| | - Christel P. H. Moons
- Department of Nutrition, Genetics and Ethology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Filip Van Nieuwerburgh
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Luc Peelman
- Department of Nutrition, Genetics and Ethology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Jimmy H. Saunders
- Department of Medical Imaging and Small Animal Orthopaedics, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
- * E-mail: (EB); (BB); (JS)
| | - Bart J. G. Broeckx
- Department of Nutrition, Genetics and Ethology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
- * E-mail: (EB); (BB); (JS)
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28
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Bray EE, Levy KM, Kennedy BS, Duffy DL, Serpell JA, MacLean EL. Predictive Models of Assistance Dog Training Outcomes Using the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire and a Standardized Temperament Evaluation. Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:49. [PMID: 30873418 PMCID: PMC6400848 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Assistance dogs can greatly improve the lives of people with disabilities. However, a large proportion of dogs bred and trained for this purpose are deemed unable to successfully fulfill the behavioral demands of this role. Often, this determination is not finalized until weeks or even months into training, when the dog is close to 2 years old. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop objective selection protocols that can identify dogs most and least likely to succeed, from early in the training process. We assessed the predictive validity of two candidate measures employed by Canine Companions for Independence (CCI), a national assistance dog organization headquartered in Santa Rosa, CA. For more than a decade, CCI has collected data on their population using the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) and a standardized temperament assessment known internally as the In-For-Training (IFT) test, which is conducted at the beginning of professional training. Data from both measures were divided into independent training and test datasets, with the training data used for variable selection and cross-validation. We developed three predictive models in which we predicted success or release from the training program using C-BARQ scores (N = 3,569), IFT scores (N = 5,967), and a combination of scores from both instruments (N = 2,990). All three final models performed significantly better than the null expectation when applied to the test data, with overall accuracies ranging from 64 to 68%. Model predictions were most accurate for dogs predicted to have the lowest probability of success (ranging from 85 to 92% accurate for dogs in the lowest 10% of predicted probabilities), and moderately accurate for identifying the dogs most likely to succeed (ranging from 62 to 72% for dogs in the top 10% of predicted probabilities). Combining C-BARQ and IFT predictors into a single model did not improve overall accuracy, although it did improve accuracy for dogs in the lowest 20% of predicted probabilities. Our results suggest that both types of assessments have the potential to be used as powerful screening tools, thereby allowing more efficient allocation of resources in assistance dog selection and training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily E Bray
- Arizona Canine Cognition Center, School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
- Canine Companions for Independence, National Headquarters, Santa Rosa, CA, United States
| | - Kerinne M Levy
- Canine Companions for Independence, National Headquarters, Santa Rosa, CA, United States
| | - Brenda S Kennedy
- Canine Companions for Independence, National Headquarters, Santa Rosa, CA, United States
| | - Deborah L Duffy
- Office of Institutional Research and Effectiveness, University of the Arts, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - James A Serpell
- Department of Clinical Sciences and Advanced Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Evan L MacLean
- Arizona Canine Cognition Center, School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
- Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
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29
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MacLean EL, Hare B. Enhanced Selection of Assistance and Explosive Detection Dogs Using Cognitive Measures. Front Vet Sci 2018; 5:236. [PMID: 30338264 PMCID: PMC6180148 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Working dogs play a variety of important roles, ranging from assisting individuals with disabilities, to explosive and medical detection work. Despite widespread demand, only a subset of dogs bred and trained for these roles ultimately succeed, creating a need for objective measures that can predict working dog aptitude. Most previous research has focused on temperamental characteristics of successful dogs. However, working dogs also face diverse cognitive challenges both in training, and throughout their working lives. We conducted a series of studies investigating the relationships between individual differences in dog cognition, and success as an assistance or detection dog. Assistance dogs (N = 164) and detection dogs (N = 222) were tested in the Dog Cognition Test Battery, a 25-item instrument probing diverse aspects of dog cognition. Through exploratory analyses we identified a subset of tasks associated with success in each training program, and developed shorter test batteries including only these measures. We then used predictive modeling in a prospective study with an independent sample of assistance dogs (N = 180), and conducted a replication study with an independent sample of detection dogs (N = 90). In assistance dogs, models using data on individual differences in cognition predicted higher probabilities of success for dogs that ultimately succeeded in the program, than for those who did not. For the subset of dogs with predicted probabilities of success in the 4th quartile (highest predicted probability of success), model predictions were 86% accurate, on average. In both the exploratory and prospective studies, successful dogs were more likely to engage in eye contact with a human experimenter when faced with an unsolvable task, or when a joint social activity was disrupted. In detection dogs, we replicated our exploratory findings that the most successful dogs scored higher on measures of sensitivity to human communicative intentions, and two measures of short term memory. These findings suggest that that (1) individual differences in cognition contribute to variance in working dog success, and (2) that objective measures of dog cognition can be used to improve the processes through which working dogs are evaluated and selected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan L MacLean
- School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States.,Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Brian Hare
- Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States.,Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States
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Spotlight on Assistance Dogs-Legislation, Welfare and Research. Animals (Basel) 2018; 8:ani8080129. [PMID: 30049995 PMCID: PMC6115927 DOI: 10.3390/ani8080129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Revised: 07/22/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Assistance dogs support humans with a variety of disabilities. Although guide dogs in particular have a long tradition in Western cultures, the legal situation around assistance dogs has been insufficiently developed in many countries so far—a situation that potentially negatively affects both animal and owner. There is also an insufficient amount of research examining assistance dogs in other areas. Studies investigating assistance dogs’ welfare status, cognitive and behavioural capacities, selection criteria for the best fitting individuals, effective training and management practices, and genetic issues, are so far mainly lacking. This review takes a comprehensive approach—it initially outlines important aspects of the current legal situation for assistance dogs in the European Union and Australia, and then it summarizes research findings focusing on dogs’ welfare, cognition, behaviour, health and training. For each of these areas, the need for future development is highlighted and potential ideas for future directions are discussed. Abstract Assistance dogs are a very diverse group of working dogs that are trained to assist humans with different types of disabilities in their daily lives. Despite these dogs’ value for humankind, research on their welfare status, cognitive and behavioural capacities, selection criteria for the best fitting individuals, effective training and management practices, and genetic issues are so far lacking. This review highlights the need to address these topics and to promote progress in legal issues around assistance dogs. The topic of assistance dogs is approached comprehensively by outlining the current status of knowledge in three different dimensions: (1) the legal dimension, outlining important legal issues in the EU and Australia; (2) the welfare dimension; and (3) the dimension of research, covering assistance dog selection and training. For each of these three dimensions, we discuss potential approaches that can be implemented in the future in order to support assistance dog working performance, to protect the dogs’ welfare, and to improve our knowledge about them. Additionally, there remain many legal issues, such as the presence of assistance dogs in public areas, the resolution of which would benefit both the assistance dog and the owner with disability.
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Corsetti S, Borruso S, Di Traglia M, Lai O, Alfieri L, Villavecchia A, Cariola G, Spaziani A, Natoli E. Bold personality makes domestic dogs entering a shelter less vulnerable to diseases. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0193794. [PMID: 29596432 PMCID: PMC5875777 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0193794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
It is widely recognised that for vertebrate species, personalities vary along an axis with extremes represented by ‘proactive’ and ‘reactive‘ individuals. The aim of this study was to verify whether there is a relationship between personality and disease vulnerability in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) exposed to an intensely stressful situation such as entering a shelter. Twenty-eight shelter dogs participated in the study. The ethogram consisted of approximately 100 behavioural patterns. Behavioural observations of dogs in their new environment, a Novel Object and a T-maze test were used to evaluate the personality of the dogs captured as strays and entering the shelter. A blood sample from each dog was obtained at admission into the shelter and after a month to evaluate their immunological state. Based on PCA analyses of observational combined with experimental data, the dogs were ordered along the boldness-shyness axis, with the first being the boldest. Excluding one (the 6th), the first 10 dogs showed an improved health status: absence of disease symptoms during the 30 days of monitoring and improved immunological parameters; the opposite was found for shy dogs. The results of this research seem to confirm findings in other vertebrate species, i.e., bold and shy dog vulnerability to diseases might be different, especially when they must cope with a stressful and highly infectious environment such as a dog shelter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Corsetti
- Biology and Biotechnology Department, University of Rome Sapienza, Rome, Italy
| | - Simona Borruso
- Biology and Biotechnology Department, University of Rome Sapienza, Rome, Italy
| | - Mario Di Traglia
- Public Health and Infectious Diseases, University of Rome Sapienza, Rome, Italy
| | - Olga Lai
- Experimental Zoo-prophylactic Institute Latium and Tuscany, Rome, Italy
| | - Lavinia Alfieri
- Experimental Zoo-prophylactic Institute Latium and Tuscany, Rome, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Eugenia Natoli
- Interzonal Dog Shelter, Local Health Unit Rome 3, Rome, Italy
- * E-mail:
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Proactive behavior, but not inhibitory control, predicts repeated innovation by spotted hyenas tested with a multi-access box. Anim Cogn 2018; 21:379-392. [PMID: 29511943 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-018-1174-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Revised: 02/26/2018] [Accepted: 03/02/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Innovation is widely linked to cognitive ability, brain size, and adaptation to novel conditions. However, successful innovation appears to be influenced by both cognitive factors, such as inhibitory control, and non-cognitive behavioral traits. We used a multi-access box (MAB) paradigm to measure repeated innovation, the number of unique innovations learned across trials, by 10 captive spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta). Spotted hyenas are highly innovative in captivity and also display striking variation in behavioral traits, making them good model organisms for examining the relationship between innovation and other behavioral traits. We measured persistence, motor diversity, motivation, activity, efficiency, inhibitory control, and neophobia demonstrated by hyenas while interacting with the MAB. We also independently assessed inhibitory control with a detour cylinder task. Most hyenas were able to solve the MAB at least once, but only four hyenas satisfied learning criteria for all four possible solutions. Interestingly, neither measure of inhibitory control predicted repeated innovation. Instead, repeated innovation was predicted by a proactive syndrome of behavioral traits that included high persistence, high motor diversity, high activity and low neophobia. Our results suggest that this proactive behavioral syndrome may be more important than inhibitory control for successful innovation with the MAB by members of this species.
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Effects of maternal investment, temperament, and cognition on guide dog success. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:9128-9133. [PMID: 28784785 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1704303114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A continuing debate in studies of social development in both humans and other animals is the extent to which early life experiences affect adult behavior. Also unclear are the relative contributions of cognitive skills ("intelligence") and temperament for successful outcomes. Guide dogs are particularly suited to research on these questions. To succeed as a guide dog, individuals must accomplish complex navigation and decision making without succumbing to distractions and unforeseen obstacles. Faced with these rigorous demands, only ∼70% of dogs that enter training ultimately achieve success. What predicts success as a guide dog? To address these questions, we followed 98 puppies from birth to adulthood. We found that high levels of overall maternal behavior were linked with a higher likelihood of program failure. Furthermore, mothers whose nursing style required greater effort by puppies were more likely to produce successful offspring, whereas mothers whose nursing style required less effort were more likely to produce offspring that failed. In young adults, an inability to solve a multistep task quickly, compounded with high levels of perseveration during the task, was associated with failure. Young adults that were released from the program also appeared more anxious, as indicated by a short latency to vocalize when faced with a novel object task. Our results suggest that both maternal nursing behavior and individual traits of cognition and temperament are associated with guide dog success.
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