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Vanhooland LC, Szabó A, Bugnyar T, Massen JJM. A comparative study of mirror self-recognition in three corvid species. Anim Cogn 2023; 26:229-248. [PMID: 36173469 PMCID: PMC9876878 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01696-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Revised: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Mirror self-recognition (MSR) assessed by the Mark Test has been the staple test for the study of animal self-awareness. When tested in this paradigm, corvid species return discrepant results, with only the Eurasian magpies and the Indian house crow successfully passing the test so far, whereas multiple other corvid species fail. The lack of replicability of these positive results and the large divergence in applied methodologies calls into question whether the observed differences are in fact phylogenetic or methodological, and, if so, which factors facilitate the expression of MSR in some corvids. In this study, we (1) present new results on the self-recognition abilities of common ravens, (2) replicate results of azure-winged magpies, and (3) compare the mirror responses and performances in the mark test of these two corvid species with a third corvid species: carrion crows, previously tested following the same experimental procedure. Our results show interspecies differences in the approach of and the response to the mirror during the mirror exposure phase of the experiment as well as in the subsequent mark test. However, the performances of these species in the Mark Test do not provide any evidence for their ability of self-recognition. Our results add to the ongoing discussion about the convergent evolution of MSR and we advocate for consistent methodologies and procedures in comparing this ability across species to advance this discussion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa-Claire Vanhooland
- Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, 1030, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Anita Szabó
- Department of Zoology, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Thomas Bugnyar
- Department of Behavioural and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, 1030, Vienna, Austria
| | - Jorg J M Massen
- Animal Behaviour and Cognition, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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2
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Cannabidiol improves Nile tilapia cichlid fish welfare. Sci Rep 2022; 12:17650. [PMID: 36271101 PMCID: PMC9586945 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-21759-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Cannabidiol (CBD) is a substance derived from Cannabis sativa, widely studied in medicine for controlling neural diseases in humans. Besides the positive effects on humans, it also presents anxiolytic proprieties and decreases aggressiveness and stress in mammals. Therefore, CBD has the potential to increase welfare in reared animals, as it seems to reduce negative states commonly experienced in artificial environments. Here, we tested the effect of different CBD doses (0, 1, 10 and 20 mg/kg) on aggressiveness, stress and reproductive development of the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) a fish reared worldwide for farming and research purposes. CBD mixed with fish food was offered to isolated fish for 5 weeks. The 10 mg/kg dose decreased fish's aggressiveness over time, whereas 20 mg/kg attenuated non-social stress. Both doses decreased the baseline cortisol level of fish and increased the gonadosomatic index. However, CBD 1 and 10 mg/kg doses decreased the spermatozoa number. No CBD dose affected feeding ingestion and growth variables, showing that it is not harmful to meat production amount. Despite the effect on spermatozoa, CBD supplementation exhibits high potential to benefit animals' lives in artificial environments. Therefore, we showed for the first time that CBD could be used as a tool to increase non-mammal welfare, presenting a great potential to be explored in other husbandry and captivity species.
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3
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Kohda M, Sogawa S, Jordan AL, Kubo N, Awata S, Satoh S, Kobayashi T, Fujita A, Bshary R. Further evidence for the capacity of mirror self-recognition in cleaner fish and the significance of ecologically relevant marks. PLoS Biol 2022; 20:e3001529. [PMID: 35176032 PMCID: PMC8853551 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
An animal that tries to remove a mark from its body that is only visible when looking into a mirror displays the capacity for mirror self-recognition (MSR), which has been interpreted as evidence for self-awareness. Conservative interpretations of existing data conclude that convincing evidence for MSR is currently restricted to great apes. Here, we address proposed shortcomings of a previous study on MSR in the cleaner wrasse Labroides dimidiatus, by varying preexposure to mirrors and by marking individuals with different colors. We found that (1) 14/14 new individuals scraped their throat when a brown mark had been provisioned, but only in the presence of a mirror; (2) blue and green color marks did not elicit scraping; (3) intentionally injecting the mark deeper beneath the skin reliably elicited spontaneous scraping in the absence of a mirror; (4) mirror-naive individuals injected with a brown mark scraped their throat with lower probability and/or lower frequency compared to mirror-experienced individuals; (5) in contrast to the mirror images, seeing another fish with the same marking did not induce throat scraping; and (6) moving the mirror to another location did not elicit renewed aggression in mirror-experienced individuals. Taken together, these results increase our confidence that cleaner fish indeed pass the mark test, although only if it is presented in ecologically relevant contexts. Therefore, we reiterate the conclusion of the previous study that either self-awareness in animals or the validity of the mirror test needs to be revised. When animal tries to remove a mark from its body that is only visible when looking into a mirror (the "mark test"), it displays the capacity for mirror self-recognition, often interpreted as evidence for self-awareness. This follow-up to a previous PLOS Biology study increases confidence that cleaner fish indeed pass the mark test, but only if it is presented in ecologically relevant contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masanori Kohda
- Laboratory of Animal Sociology, Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Shumpei Sogawa
- Laboratory of Animal Sociology, Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Alex L. Jordan
- Department of Collective Behaviour, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behaviour, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Naoki Kubo
- Laboratory of Animal Sociology, Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Satoshi Awata
- Laboratory of Animal Sociology, Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Shun Satoh
- Laboratory of Animal Sociology, Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Taiga Kobayashi
- Laboratory of Animal Sociology, Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Akane Fujita
- Laboratory of Animal Sociology, Department of Biology and Geosciences, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Redouan Bshary
- Institute of Zoology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
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4
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Antioxidant capacity differs across social ranks and with ascension in males of a group-living fish. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2021; 265:111126. [PMID: 34906630 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2021.111126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Animals that live in groups often form hierarchies in which an individual's behaviour and physiology varies based on their social rank. Occasionally, a subordinate can ascend into a dominant position and the ascending individual must make rapid behavioural and physiological adjustments to solidify their dominance. These periods of social transition and instability can be stressful and ascending individuals often incur large metabolic costs that could influence their oxidative status. Most previous investigations examining the link between oxidative status and the social environment have done so under stable social conditions and have evaluated oxidative status in a single tissue. Therefore, evaluations of how oxidative status is regulated across multiple tissues during periods of social flux would greatly enhance our understanding of the relationship between oxidative status and the social environment. Here, we assessed how antioxidant capacity in three tissues (brain, gonad, and muscle) varied among dominant, subordinate, and ascending males of the group-living cichlid fish, Neolamprologus pulcher. Antioxidant capacity in the brain and muscle of ascending males was intermediate to that of dominant (highest levels) and subordinate males (lowest levels) and correlated with differences in social and locomotor behaviours, respectively. Gonad antioxidant capacity was lower in ascending males than in dominant males. However, gonad antioxidant capacity was positively correlated with the size of ascending males' gonads suggesting that ascending males may increase gonad antioxidant capacity as they develop their gonads. Overall, our results highlight the widespread physiological consequences of social ascension and emphasize the importance of tissue-specific measures of oxidative status.
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Lage CA, Wolmarans DW, Mograbi DC. An evolutionary view of self-awareness. Behav Processes 2021; 194:104543. [PMID: 34800608 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2021.104543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The capacity to be self-aware is regarded as a fundamental difference between humans and other species. However, growing evidence challenges this notion, indicating that many animals show complex signs and behaviors that are consonant with self-awareness. In this review, we suggest that many animals are indeed self-aware, but that the complexity of this process differs among species. We discuss this topic by addressing several different questions regarding self-awareness: what is self-awareness, how has self-awareness been studied experimentally, which species may be self-aware, what are its potential adaptive advantages. We conclude by proposing alternative models for the emergence of self-awareness in relation to species evolutionary paths, indicating future research questions to advance this field further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caio A Lage
- Department of Psychology, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio), Brazil; University of Perugia, Italy
| | - De Wet Wolmarans
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Daniel C Mograbi
- Department of Psychology, Pontifical Catholic University of Rio de Janeiro (PUC-Rio), Brazil; Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, United Kingdom.
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Hubená P, Horký P, Slavík O. Fish self-awareness: limits of current knowledge and theoretical expectations. Anim Cogn 2021; 25:447-461. [PMID: 34655023 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-021-01566-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Animal self-awareness is divided into three levels: bodily, social, and introspective self-awareness. Research has focused mainly on the introspection of so-called higher organisms such as mammals. Herein, we turn our attention to fish and provide opinions on their self-awareness based on a review of the scientific literature. Our specific aims are to discuss whether fish (A) could have a neural substrate supporting self-awareness and whether they display signs of (B) social and (C) introspective self-awareness. The present knowledge does not exclude the possibility that fish could have a simple neocortex or other structures that support certain higher cognitive processes, as the function of the primate cerebral cortex can be replaced by other neurological structures. Fish are known to display winner, loser, and audience effects, which could be interpreted as signs of social self-awareness. The audience effect may be explained not only by ethological cost and benefit theory but also by the concept of public self-awareness, which comes from human studies. The behavioural and neural manifestations of depression may be induced in fish under social subordination and may be viewed as certain awareness of a social status. The current findings on fish introspective self-awareness have been debated in the scientific community and, therefore, demand replication to provide more evidence. Further research is needed to verify the outlined ideas; however, the current knowledge indicates that fish are capable of certain higher cognitive processes, which raises questions and implications regarding ethics and welfare in fish-related research and husbandry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavla Hubená
- Department of Zoology and Fisheries, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, Prague 6, 165 00, Suchdol, Czech Republic.
| | - Pavel Horký
- Department of Zoology and Fisheries, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, Prague 6, 165 00, Suchdol, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Slavík
- Department of Zoology and Fisheries, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, Prague 6, 165 00, Suchdol, Czech Republic
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7
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Josi D, Frommen JG. Through a glass darkly? Divergent reactions of eight Lake Tanganyika cichlid species towards their mirror image in their natural environment. Ethology 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.13207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dario Josi
- Department of Natural Sciences Ecology and Environment Research Centre Conservation, Ecology, Evolution and Behaviour Research Group Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester UK
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution Division of Behavioural Ecology University of Bern Hinterkappelen Switzerland
| | - Joachim G. Frommen
- Department of Natural Sciences Ecology and Environment Research Centre Conservation, Ecology, Evolution and Behaviour Research Group Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester UK
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution Division of Behavioural Ecology University of Bern Hinterkappelen Switzerland
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8
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Performance of cyprinids in non-reversing mirrors versus regular mirrors in tests of aggressiveness. J ETHOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10164-020-00679-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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9
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Shorland G, Genty E, Guéry JP, Zuberbühler K. Investigating self-recognition in bonobos: mirror exposure reduces looking time to self but not unfamiliar conspecifics. PeerJ 2020; 8:e9685. [PMID: 32923178 PMCID: PMC7457926 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.9685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 07/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The question of whether animals have some sort of self-awareness is a topic of continued debate. A necessary precondition for self-awareness is the ability to visually discriminate the self from others, which has traditionally been investigated through mirror self-recognition experiments. Although great apes generally pass such experiments, interpretations of results have remained controversial. The aim of this study was to investigate how bonobos (Pan paniscus) respond to different types of images of themselves and others, both before and after prolonged mirror exposure. We first presented presumably mirror-naive subjects with representations of themselves in three different ways (mirror image, contingent and non-contingent video footage) as well as representations of others (video footage of known and unknown conspecifics). We found that subjects paid significantly less attention to contingent images of themselves (mirror image, video footage) than to non-contingent images of themselves and unfamiliar individuals, suggesting they perceived the non-contingent self-images as novel. We then provided subjects with three months of access to a large mirror centrally positioned in the enclosure. Following this manipulation, subjects showed significantly reduced interest in the non-contingent self-images, while interest in unknown individuals remained unchanged, suggesting that the mirror experience has led to a fuller understanding of their own self. We discuss implications of this preliminary investigation for the on-going debate on self-awareness in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gladez Shorland
- Department of Comparative Cognition, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Emilie Genty
- Department of Comparative Cognition, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
- Institute of Work and Organizational Psychology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | | | - Klaus Zuberbühler
- Department of Comparative Cognition, Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St. Andrews, St Andrews, Scotland (United Kingdom)
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10
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Clary D, Stow MK, Vernouillet A, Kelly DM. Mirror‐mediated responses of California scrub jays (
Aphelocoma californica
) during a caching task and the mark test. Ethology 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dawson Clary
- Department of Psychology University of Manitoba Winnipeg MB Canada
| | - Meara K. Stow
- Department of Psychology University of Manitoba Winnipeg MB Canada
| | - Alizée Vernouillet
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Manitoba Winnipeg MB Canada
| | - Debbie M. Kelly
- Department of Psychology University of Manitoba Winnipeg MB Canada
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Manitoba Winnipeg MB Canada
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11
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Fellow travellers in cognitive evolution: Co-evolution of working memory and mental time travel? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 105:94-105. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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12
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Krachun C, Lurz R, Mahovetz LM, Hopkins WD. Mirror self-recognition and its relationship to social cognition in chimpanzees. Anim Cogn 2019; 22:1171-1183. [PMID: 31542841 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-019-01309-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Revised: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 09/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Chimpanzees and humans are capable of recognizing their own reflection in mirrors. Little is understood about the selective pressures that led to this evolved trait and about the mechanisms that underlie it. Here, we investigated the hypothesis that mirror self-recognition in chimpanzees is the byproduct of a developed form of self-awareness that was naturally selected for its adaptive use in social cognitive behaviors. We present here the first direct attempt to assess the social cognition hypothesis by analyzing the association between mirror self-recognition in chimpanzees, as measured by a mirror-mark test, and their performance on a variety of social cognition tests. Consistent with the social cognition hypothesis, chimpanzees who showed evidence of mirror self-recognition in the mark test tended to perform significantly better on the social cognition tasks than those who failed the mark test. Additionally, the data as a whole fit the social cognition hypothesis better than the main competing hypothesis of mirror self-recognition in great apes, the secondary representation hypothesis. Our findings strongly suggest that the evolutionary origins of great apes' and humans' capacity to understand ourselves, as revealed by our capacity to recognize ourselves in mirrors, are intimately linked to our ability to understand others.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Krachun
- Department of Psychology, University of Saskatchewan, 9 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.
| | - Robert Lurz
- Department of Philosophy, Brooklyn College, CUNY, 2900 Bedford Avenue, Brooklyn, NY, USA
| | - Lindsay M Mahovetz
- Department of Psychology, University of North Florida, 1 UNF Drive, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - William D Hopkins
- Department of Comparative Medicine, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Bastrop, TX, USA
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13
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Ideal despotic distributions in convict cichlids (Amatitlania nigrofasciata)? Effects of predation risk and personality on habitat preference. Behav Processes 2019; 158:163-171. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Revised: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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