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Simner PJ, Pitout JDD, Dingle TC. Laboratory detection of carbapenemases among Gram-negative organisms. Clin Microbiol Rev 2024; 37:e0005422. [PMID: 39545731 PMCID: PMC11629623 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00054-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2024] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYThe carbapenems remain some of the most effective options available for treating patients with serious infections due to Gram-negative bacteria. Carbapenemases are enzymes that hydrolyze carbapenems and are the primary method driving carbapenem resistance globally. Detection of carbapenemases is required for patient management, the rapid implementation of infection prevention and control (IP&C) protocols, and for epidemiologic purposes. Therefore, clinical and public health microbiology laboratories must be able to detect and report carbapenemases among predominant Gram-negative organisms from both cultured isolates and direct from clinical specimens for treatment and surveillance purposes. There is not a "one size fits all" laboratory approach for the detection of bacteria with carbapenemases, and institutions need to determine what fits best with the goals of their antimicrobial stewardship and IP&C programs. Luckily, there are several options and approaches available for clinical laboratories to choose methods that best suits their individual needs. A laboratory approach to detect carbapenemases among bacterial isolates consists of two steps, namely a screening process (e.g., not susceptible to ertapenem, meropenem, and/or imipenem), followed by a confirmation test (i.e., phenotypic, genotypic or proteomic methods) for the presence of a carbapenemase. Direct from specimen testing for the most common carbapenemases generally involves detection via rapid, molecular approaches. The aim of this article is to provide brief overviews on Gram-negative bacteria carbapenem-resistant definitions, types of carbapenemases, global epidemiology, and then describe in detail the laboratory methods for the detection of carbapenemases among Gram-negative bacteria. We will specifically focus on the Enterobacterales, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Acinetobacter baumannii complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia J. Simner
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Johann D. D. Pitout
- Cummings School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Alberta Precision Laboratories, Diagnostic Laboratory, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa
| | - Tanis C. Dingle
- Cummings School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Alberta Precision Laboratories, Public Health Laboratory, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Munguia-Ramos D, Xancal-Salvador LF, Esteban-Kenel V, Ortiz-Conchi N, Jaimes-Aquino RA, Mendoza-Rojas M, Cervantes-Sánchez A, Méndez-Ramos S, Rivera-Villegas HO, Rajme-Lopez S, Tamez-Torres KM, Roman-Montes CM, Martínez-Gamboa A, Bobadilla del-Valle M, Sifuentes-Osornio J, Ponce-de-Leon A, Gonzalez-Lara MF, Martinez-Guerra BA. Rapid Detection of Carbapenemases Using NG-Test ® CARBA 5 in Positive Blood Cultures: A Diagnostic Test Study. Antibiotics (Basel) 2024; 13:1105. [PMID: 39596798 PMCID: PMC11591157 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics13111105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2024] [Revised: 11/14/2024] [Accepted: 11/16/2024] [Indexed: 11/29/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Infections due to carbapenem-resistant Gram-negative bacteria are emerging as an important challenge in health-care settings and a growing concern worldwide. Lateral flow immunoassay NG-Test® CARBA 5 can detect the five most reported carbapenemases (KPC, OXA-48-like, VIM, IMP, and NDM). Direct testing of positive blood cultures could reduce time to detection. This study aims to validate and report on the diagnostic yield of a novel method for carbapenemase detection in positive blood culture vials using NG-Test® CARBA 5. METHODS We implemented an investigator-developed method for the direct testing of positive blood cultures using NG-Test® CARBA 5. We compared results between genotypic, phenotypic, and direct NG-Test® CARBA 5 in blood. RESULTS A total of 32 isolates were tested (21 Enterobacterales and 11 Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Genotypic testing detected 23 carbapenemases. When comparing the results of NG-Test® CARBA 5 in blood with genotypic testing, agreement was observed in 31/32 (97%) tests. The sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, and negative predictive value of the NG-Test® CARBA 5 in blood were 93%, 100%, 100%, and 94%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Our method using NG-Test® CARBA 5 directly in blood culture samples presented an excellent diagnostic yield when compared to genotypic profiling and permits an accurate detection of carbapenemases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Munguia-Ramos
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (D.M.-R.); (H.O.R.-V.); (S.R.-L.); (K.M.T.-T.); (C.M.R.-M.); (A.P.-d.-L.); (M.F.G.-L.)
| | - Luis Fernando Xancal-Salvador
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (L.F.X.-S.); (V.E.-K.); (N.O.-C.); (R.A.J.-A.); (M.M.-R.); (A.C.-S.); (S.M.-R.); (A.M.-G.); (M.B.d.-V.)
| | - Verónica Esteban-Kenel
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (L.F.X.-S.); (V.E.-K.); (N.O.-C.); (R.A.J.-A.); (M.M.-R.); (A.C.-S.); (S.M.-R.); (A.M.-G.); (M.B.d.-V.)
| | - Narciso Ortiz-Conchi
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (L.F.X.-S.); (V.E.-K.); (N.O.-C.); (R.A.J.-A.); (M.M.-R.); (A.C.-S.); (S.M.-R.); (A.M.-G.); (M.B.d.-V.)
| | - Ricardo Antonio Jaimes-Aquino
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (L.F.X.-S.); (V.E.-K.); (N.O.-C.); (R.A.J.-A.); (M.M.-R.); (A.C.-S.); (S.M.-R.); (A.M.-G.); (M.B.d.-V.)
| | - Miguel Mendoza-Rojas
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (L.F.X.-S.); (V.E.-K.); (N.O.-C.); (R.A.J.-A.); (M.M.-R.); (A.C.-S.); (S.M.-R.); (A.M.-G.); (M.B.d.-V.)
| | - Axel Cervantes-Sánchez
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (L.F.X.-S.); (V.E.-K.); (N.O.-C.); (R.A.J.-A.); (M.M.-R.); (A.C.-S.); (S.M.-R.); (A.M.-G.); (M.B.d.-V.)
| | - Steven Méndez-Ramos
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (L.F.X.-S.); (V.E.-K.); (N.O.-C.); (R.A.J.-A.); (M.M.-R.); (A.C.-S.); (S.M.-R.); (A.M.-G.); (M.B.d.-V.)
| | - Hector Orlando Rivera-Villegas
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (D.M.-R.); (H.O.R.-V.); (S.R.-L.); (K.M.T.-T.); (C.M.R.-M.); (A.P.-d.-L.); (M.F.G.-L.)
| | - Sandra Rajme-Lopez
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (D.M.-R.); (H.O.R.-V.); (S.R.-L.); (K.M.T.-T.); (C.M.R.-M.); (A.P.-d.-L.); (M.F.G.-L.)
| | - Karla Maria Tamez-Torres
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (D.M.-R.); (H.O.R.-V.); (S.R.-L.); (K.M.T.-T.); (C.M.R.-M.); (A.P.-d.-L.); (M.F.G.-L.)
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (L.F.X.-S.); (V.E.-K.); (N.O.-C.); (R.A.J.-A.); (M.M.-R.); (A.C.-S.); (S.M.-R.); (A.M.-G.); (M.B.d.-V.)
| | - Carla Marina Roman-Montes
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (D.M.-R.); (H.O.R.-V.); (S.R.-L.); (K.M.T.-T.); (C.M.R.-M.); (A.P.-d.-L.); (M.F.G.-L.)
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (L.F.X.-S.); (V.E.-K.); (N.O.-C.); (R.A.J.-A.); (M.M.-R.); (A.C.-S.); (S.M.-R.); (A.M.-G.); (M.B.d.-V.)
| | - Areli Martínez-Gamboa
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (L.F.X.-S.); (V.E.-K.); (N.O.-C.); (R.A.J.-A.); (M.M.-R.); (A.C.-S.); (S.M.-R.); (A.M.-G.); (M.B.d.-V.)
| | - Miriam Bobadilla del-Valle
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (L.F.X.-S.); (V.E.-K.); (N.O.-C.); (R.A.J.-A.); (M.M.-R.); (A.C.-S.); (S.M.-R.); (A.M.-G.); (M.B.d.-V.)
| | - Jose Sifuentes-Osornio
- General Direction, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico;
| | - Alfredo Ponce-de-Leon
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (D.M.-R.); (H.O.R.-V.); (S.R.-L.); (K.M.T.-T.); (C.M.R.-M.); (A.P.-d.-L.); (M.F.G.-L.)
| | - Maria Fernanda Gonzalez-Lara
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (D.M.-R.); (H.O.R.-V.); (S.R.-L.); (K.M.T.-T.); (C.M.R.-M.); (A.P.-d.-L.); (M.F.G.-L.)
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (L.F.X.-S.); (V.E.-K.); (N.O.-C.); (R.A.J.-A.); (M.M.-R.); (A.C.-S.); (S.M.-R.); (A.M.-G.); (M.B.d.-V.)
| | - Bernardo Alfonso Martinez-Guerra
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (D.M.-R.); (H.O.R.-V.); (S.R.-L.); (K.M.T.-T.); (C.M.R.-M.); (A.P.-d.-L.); (M.F.G.-L.)
- Clinical Microbiology Laboratory, Department of Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, 15 Vasco de Quiroga, Belisario Domínguez Secc 16, Tlalpan, Mexico City 14080, Mexico; (L.F.X.-S.); (V.E.-K.); (N.O.-C.); (R.A.J.-A.); (M.M.-R.); (A.C.-S.); (S.M.-R.); (A.M.-G.); (M.B.d.-V.)
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Volland H, Ballesté-Delpierre C, Szabó D, Gonzalez C, Takissian J, Aszalos AZ, Ostorhazi E, Farkas S, Kamotsay K, Rosenmoller M, Stankov-Pugès M, Francius L, Boutigny L, Sivan V, Simon S, Gelhaye S, Bosch J, Vila J, Naas T. Rapid detection of CTX-M-type ESBLs and carbapenemases directly from biological samples using the BL-DetecTool. J Antimicrob Chemother 2022; 77:2867-2875. [PMID: 35978470 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkac264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lateral flow immunoassays (LFIA) have shown their usefulness for detecting CTX-M- and carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales (CPEs) in bacterial cultures. Here, we have developed and validated the BL-DetecTool to detect CTX-M enzymes and carbapenemases directly from clinical samples. METHODS The BL-DetecTool is an LFIA that integrates an easy sample preparation device named SPID (Sampling, Processing, Incubation and Detection). It was evaluated in three University hospitals on urine, blood culture (BC) and rectal swab (RS) specimens either of clinical origin or on spiked samples. RS evaluation was done directly and after a 24 h enrichment step. RESULTS The CTX-M BL-DetecTool was tested on 485 samples (154 BC, 150 urines, and 181 RS) and revealed a sensitivity and specificity of 97.04% (95% CI 92.59%-99.19%) and 99.43% (95% CI 97.95%-99.93%), respectively. Similarly, the Carba5 BL-DetecTool was tested on 382 samples (145 BC, 116 urines, and 121 RS) and revealed a sensitivity and specificity of 95.3% (95% CI 89.43%-98.47%) and 100% (95% CI 98.67%-100%), respectively. While with the Carba5 BL-DetecTool five false negatives were observed, mostly in RS samples, with the CTX-M BL-DetecTool, in addition to four false-negatives, two false-positives were also observed. Direct testing of RS samples revealed a sensitivity of 78% and 86% for CTX-M and carbapenemase detection, respectively. CONCLUSIONS BL-DetecTool showed excellent biological performance, was easy-to-use, rapid, and could be implemented in any microbiology laboratory around the world, without additional equipment, no need for electricity, nor trained personnel. It offers an attractive alternative to costly molecular methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hervé Volland
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Clara Ballesté-Delpierre
- University of Barcelona, Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Hospital Clínic - Barcelona, Spain
| | - Dóra Szabó
- Semmelweis University, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Camille Gonzalez
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bicêtre, Bacteriology-Hygiene unit, Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
| | - Julie Takissian
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bicêtre, Bacteriology-Hygiene unit, Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
| | - Albert Zoltan Aszalos
- Semmelweis University, Health Services Management Training Centre, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Eszter Ostorhazi
- Semmelweis University, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Szilvia Farkas
- Semmelweis University, Health Services Management Training Centre, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Katalin Kamotsay
- Central Microbiology Laboratory, Central Hospital of Southern Pest National Institute of Hematology and Infectious Disease, Budapest, Hungary
| | | | | | | | | | - Virginie Sivan
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Stéphanie Simon
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Stéphanie Gelhaye
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Jordi Bosch
- University of Barcelona, Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Hospital Clínic - Barcelona, Spain.,University of Barcelona, Hospital Clínic, Department of Clinical Microbiology - CDB, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jordi Vila
- University of Barcelona, Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), Hospital Clínic - Barcelona, Spain.,University of Barcelona, Hospital Clínic, Department of Clinical Microbiology - CDB, Barcelona, Spain.,CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas (CIBERINFEC), ISCIII, Madrid, Spain
| | - Thierry Naas
- Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bicêtre, Bacteriology-Hygiene unit, Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France.,Team 'Resist' UMR1184 'Immunology of Viral, Auto-Immune, Hematological and Bacterial diseases (IMVA-HB)', INSERM, University Paris-Saclay, CEA, LabEx LERMIT, Faculty of Medicine, Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France.,Associated French National Reference Center for Antibiotic Resistance: Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales, Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
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García-Rivera C, Parra-Grande M, Merino E, Boix V, Rodríguez JC. Concordance of the Filmarray Blood Culture Identification Panel 2 and classical microbiological methods in a bacteriemia diagnostic unit. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2022; 104:115787. [DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2022.115787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Comini S, Bianco G, Boattini M, Banche G, Ricciardelli G, Allizond V, Cavallo R, Costa C. Evaluation of a diagnostic algorithm for rapid identification of Gram-negative species and detection of extended-spectrum β-lactamase and carbapenemase directly from blood cultures. J Antimicrob Chemother 2022; 77:2632-2641. [DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkac230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Objectives
To evaluate a rapid diagnostic algorithm based on MALDI-TOF MS, lateral flow immunoassays (LFIAs) and molecular testing performed directly from positive blood cultures (BCs) for Gram-negative species identification and detection of CTX-M extended-spectrum β-lactamases and main carbapenemases.
Methods
Non-duplicate BCs positive to Gram-negative bacteria at microscope examination were subjected to species identification by direct MALDI-TOF MS following recovery of bacterial pellet by Rapid MBT Sepsityper® kit. Subsequently, NG-Test® CARBA 5 and NG-Test® CTX-M MULTI LFIAs were performed according to identified microbial species. Eazyplex® SuperBug CRE molecular assay was performed in cases of NG-Test® CARBA 5 negative results in patients with documented carbapenemase-producers carriage. Results of rapid diagnostic workflow were compared with those obtained by conventional diagnostic routine.
Results
Overall, the direct MALDI-TOF MS protocol allowed reliable identification to the species level of 92.1% of the 2133 monomicrobial BCs. Rate of matched identification was significantly higher for Enterobacterales (97.3%) in comparison to non-fermenting Gram-negative species (80.2%), obligate anaerobic bacteria (42.1%) and fastidious Gram-negative species (41.5%). The overall sensitivity of NG-Test® CARBA 5 and NG-Test® CTX-M MULTI was 92.2% and 91.6%, respectively. Integration of Easyplex® SuperBug CRE allowed the detection of blaKPC mutants associated with ceftazidime/avibactam resistance, reaching 100% sensitivity in carbapenemase detection. Both LFIAs and molecular testing showed no false-positive results.
Conclusions
Algorithms based on MALDI-TOF MS, LFIAs and molecular testing may represent a cost-effective tool to timely identify Gram-negative species and detect resistance markers directly from BCs. According to local epidemiology, these results may allow antimicrobial stewardship interventions including prompt use of new approved drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Comini
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, University Hospital Città della Salute e della Scienza di Torino , Turin , Italy
- Department of Public Health and Paediatrics, University of Torino , Turin , Italy
| | - Gabriele Bianco
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, University Hospital Città della Salute e della Scienza di Torino , Turin , Italy
| | - Matteo Boattini
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, University Hospital Città della Salute e della Scienza di Torino , Turin , Italy
- Department of Public Health and Paediatrics, University of Torino , Turin , Italy
| | - Giuliana Banche
- Department of Public Health and Paediatrics, University of Torino , Turin , Italy
| | - Guido Ricciardelli
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, University Hospital Città della Salute e della Scienza di Torino , Turin , Italy
- Department of Public Health and Paediatrics, University of Torino , Turin , Italy
| | - Valeria Allizond
- Department of Public Health and Paediatrics, University of Torino , Turin , Italy
| | - Rossana Cavallo
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, University Hospital Città della Salute e della Scienza di Torino , Turin , Italy
- Department of Public Health and Paediatrics, University of Torino , Turin , Italy
| | - Cristina Costa
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, University Hospital Città della Salute e della Scienza di Torino , Turin , Italy
- Department of Public Health and Paediatrics, University of Torino , Turin , Italy
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