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Poding LH, Jägers P, Herlitze S, Huhn M. Diversity and function of fluorescent molecules in marine animals. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:1391-1410. [PMID: 38468189 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Revised: 02/24/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Fluorescence in marine animals has mainly been studied in Cnidaria but is found in many different phyla such as Annelida, Crustacea, Mollusca, and Chordata. While many fluorescent proteins and molecules have been identified, very little information is available about the biological functions of fluorescence. In this review, we focus on describing the occurrence of fluorescence in marine animals and the behavioural and physiological functions of fluorescent molecules based on experimental approaches. These biological functions of fluorescence range from prey and symbiont attraction, photoprotection, photoenhancement, stress mitigation, mimicry, and aposematism to inter- and intraspecific communication. We provide a comprehensive list of marine taxa that utilise fluorescence, including demonstrated effects on behavioural or physiological responses. We describe the numerous known functions of fluorescence in anthozoans and their underlying molecular mechanisms. We also highlight that other marine taxa should be studied regarding the functions of fluorescence. We suggest that an increase in research effort in this field could contribute to understanding the capacity of marine animals to respond to negative effects of climate change, such as rising sea temperatures and increasing intensities of solar irradiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars H Poding
- Department of General Zoology and Neurobiology, Institute of Biology and Biotechnology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, 44801, Germany
| | - Peter Jägers
- Department of General Zoology and Neurobiology, Institute of Biology and Biotechnology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, 44801, Germany
| | - Stefan Herlitze
- Department of General Zoology and Neurobiology, Institute of Biology and Biotechnology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, 44801, Germany
| | - Mareike Huhn
- Department of General Zoology and Neurobiology, Institute of Biology and Biotechnology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Bochum, 44801, Germany
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Jarett JK, MacManes MD, Morrow KM, Pankey MS, Lesser MP. Comparative Genomics of Color Morphs In the Coral Montastraea cavernosa. Sci Rep 2017; 7:16039. [PMID: 29167578 PMCID: PMC5700045 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-16371-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Accepted: 11/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Montastraea cavernosa is a common coral in the Caribbean basin found in several color morphs. To investigate the causes for brown and orange morphs we undertook a genomics approach on corals collected at the same time and depth in the Bahamas. The coral holobiont includes the host, symbiotic dinoflagellates (Symbiodinium spp.), and a diverse microbiome. While the coral host showed significant genetic differentiation between color morphs both the composition of the Symbiodinium spp. communities and the prokaryotic communities did not. Both targeted and global gene expression differences in the transcriptome of the host show no difference in fluorescent proteins while the metatranscriptome of the microbiome shows that pigments such as phycoerythrin and orange carotenoid protein of cyanobacterial origin are significantly greater in orange morphs, which is also consistent with the significantly greater number of cyanobacteria quantified by 16S rRNA reads and flow cytometry. The microbiome of orange color morphs expressed significantly more nitrogenase (nifH) transcripts consistent with their known ability to fix nitrogen. Both coral and Symbiodinium spp. transcriptomes from orange morphs had significantly increased expression of genes related to immune response and apoptosis, which may potentially be involved in maintaining and regulating the unique symbiont population in orange morphs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica K Jarett
- Molecular, Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, 03824, USA
- US Department of Energy, Joint Genome Institute, 2800 Mitchell Drive, Walnut Creek, CA, 94598, USA
| | - Matthew D MacManes
- Molecular, Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, 03824, USA
| | - Kathleen M Morrow
- Molecular, Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, 03824, USA
| | - M Sabrina Pankey
- Molecular, Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, 03824, USA
| | - Michael P Lesser
- Molecular, Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, 03824, USA.
- School of Marine Science and Ocean Engineering, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, 03824, USA.
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Novel fluorescent protein from Hydnophora rigida possesses green emission. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2014; 448:33-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.04.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2014] [Accepted: 04/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Fluorescent epibiotic microbial community on the carapace of a Bahamian ostracod. Arch Microbiol 2013; 195:595-604. [PMID: 23861150 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-013-0911-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2013] [Revised: 06/19/2013] [Accepted: 06/26/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Ostracods collected from shallow coral reefs in the Bahamas were found to exhibit blue light-stimulated orange fluorescence at night. Fluorescent spectra revealed the presence of orange fluorescence with a maximum emission at ~595 nm on the carapace of these ostracods, while scanning electron microscopy revealed a morphologically diverse microbial community covering the entire carapace of these ostracods. Pyrosequencing and cyanobacterial-specific 16S rRNA sequencing reveals that this epibiont community is highly diverse and highly variable between individual ostracods. Many species of Cyanobacteria in the orders Oscillatoriales and Chroococcales, as well as other Proteobacteria and diatom chloroplast sequences, were identified using the cyanobacterial-specific primers. While no fluorescent proteins or phycoerythrin were detected in these ostracods, it is possible that the observed orange fluorescence is the result of carotenoid fluorescence from Cyanobacteria. The microbial consortium forms an epibiotic biofilm on the carapace of these ostracods whose functions are unknown.
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Salih A. Screening reef corals for novel GFP-type fluorescent proteins by confocal imaging. Methods Mol Biol 2012; 872:217-33. [PMID: 22700414 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-61779-797-2_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The discovery of multicolored fluorescent proteins (FPs), in reef corals, that are close relatives of the green fluorescent protein (GFP) has led to what is now viewed as the second GFP revolution. Numerous GFP-type proteins, termed "reef FPs," have been cloned from reef organisms and many possess new colors, novel molecular characteristics, protein chemistry and many display unusual photophysical properties. Although some FPs have certain disadvantageous properties, such as the tendency to oligomerize or have slow maturation rates, reef FPs have been developed into versatile probes for cell biology and imaging applications. Screening of natural sources for novel GFP-type proteins continues to be valuable due to the need to expand the range of spectral colors, brightness, monomeric or dimeric states, faster maturation states, and photoactivity. Confocal imaging, coupled with microspectral detection, provides a rapid technique for in vivo characterization of FPs with desirable spectral and photoactive properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anya Salih
- Confocal Bio-Imaging Facility (CBIF), School of Science and Health, University of Western Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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Ikmi A, Gibson MC. Identification and in vivo characterization of NvFP-7R, a developmentally regulated red fluorescent protein of Nematostella vectensis. PLoS One 2010; 5:e11807. [PMID: 20668556 PMCID: PMC2910727 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0011807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2010] [Accepted: 06/30/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In recent years, the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis has emerged as a critical model organism for comparative genomics and developmental biology. Although Nematostella is a member of the anthozoan cnidarians (known for producing an abundance of diverse fluorescent proteins (FPs)), endogenous patterns of Nematostella fluorescence have not been described and putative FPs encoded by the genome have not been characterized. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We described the spatiotemporal expression of endogenous red fluorescence during Nematostella development. Spatially, there are two patterns of red fluorescence, both restricted to the oral endoderm in developing polyps. One pattern is found in long fluorescent domains associated with the eight mesenteries and the other is found in short fluorescent domains situated between tentacles. Temporally, the long domains appear simultaneously at the 12-tentacle stage. In contrast, the short domains arise progressively between the 12- and 16-tentacle stage. To determine the source of the red fluorescence, we used bioinformatic approaches to identify all possible putative Nematostella FPs and a Drosophila S2 cell culture assay to validate NvFP-7R, a novel red fluorescent protein. We report that both the mRNA expression pattern and spectral signature of purified NvFP-7R closely match that of the endogenous red fluorescence. Strikingly, the red fluorescent pattern of NvFP-7R exhibits asymmetric expression along the directive axis, indicating that the nvfp-7r locus senses the positional information of the body plan. At the tissue level, NvFP-7R exhibits an unexpected subcellular localization and a complex complementary expression pattern in apposed epithelia sheets comprising each endodermal mesentery. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE These experiments not only identify NvFP-7R as a novel red fluorescent protein that could be employed as a research tool; they also uncover an unexpected spatio-temporal complexity of gene expression in an adult cnidarian. Perhaps most importantly, our results define Nematostella as a new model organism for understanding the biological function of fluorescent proteins in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aissam Ikmi
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Matthew C. Gibson
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, United States of America
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Kansas University Medical School, Kansas City, Kansas, United States of America
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Johansen SD, Emblem Å, Karlsen BO, Okkenhaug S, Hansen H, Moum T, Coucheron DH, Seternes OM. Approaching marine bioprospecting in hexacorals by RNA deep sequencing. N Biotechnol 2010; 27:267-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbt.2010.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Ilagan RP, Rhoades E, Gruber DF, Kao HT, Pieribone VA, Regan L. A new bright green-emitting fluorescent protein--engineered monomeric and dimeric forms. FEBS J 2010; 277:1967-78. [PMID: 20345907 PMCID: PMC2855763 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2010.07618.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Fluorescent proteins have become essential tools in molecular and biological applications. Here, we present a novel fluorescent protein isolated from warm water coral, Cyphastrea microphthalma. The protein, which we named vivid Verde fluorescent protein (VFP), matures readily at 37 degrees C and emits bright green light. Further characterizations revealed that VFP has a tendency to form dimers. By creating a homology model of VFP, based on the structure of the red fluorescent protein, DsRed, we were able to make mutations that alter the protein's oligomerization state. We present two proteins, mVFP and mVFP1, that are both exclusively monomeric, and one protein, dVFP, which is dimeric. We characterized the spectroscopic properties of VFP and its variants in comparison with enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP), a widely used variant of GFP. All the VFP variants are at least twice as bright as EGFP. Finally, we demonstrated the effectiveness of the VFP variants in both in vitro and in vivo detection applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robielyn P. Ilagan
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - Elizabeth Rhoades
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
| | - David F. Gruber
- Department of Natural Sciences, Baruch College and The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, NY 10010
| | - Hung-Teh Kao
- Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Brown University, Providence, RI
| | | | - Lynne Regan
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
- Department of Chemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06520
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Gruber DF, Tuorto S, Taghon GL. Growth phase and elemental stoichiometry of bacterial prey influences ciliate grazing selectivity. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2009; 56:466-71. [PMID: 19737200 DOI: 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2009.00428.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Protozoa are known to selectively graze bacteria and can differentiate prey based on size and viability, but less is known about the effects of prey cellular composition on predator selectivity. We measured the effect of growth phase and elemental stoichiometry of Escherichia coli on grazing by two ciliates, Euplotes vannus and Cyclidium glaucoma. Bacterial cells of a single strain were transformed with green and red fluorescent protein and harvested from culture at differing growth stages. Cells in exponential growth phase had low carbon:phosphorus (39) and nitrogen:phosphorus (9) ratios, while cells from stationary phase had high carbon:phosphorus of 104 and nitrogen:phosphorus of 26. When offered an equal mixture of both types of bacteria, Cyclidium grazed stationary phase, high carbon:phosphorus, high nitrogen:phosphorus cells to 22% of initial abundance within 135 min, while Euplotes reduced these cells to 33%. Neither ciliate species decreased the abundance of the exponential phase cells, lower carbon:phosphorus and nitrogen:phosphorus, relative to control treatments. Because protozoa have higher nitrogen:phosphorus and carbon:phosphorus ratios than their prokaryotic prey, this study raises the possibility that it may be advantageous for protozoa to preferentially consume more slowly growing bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- David F Gruber
- Institute of Marine and Coastal Sciences, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, 08901, USA.
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Palmer CV, Modi CK, Mydlarz LD. Coral fluorescent proteins as antioxidants. PLoS One 2009; 4:e7298. [PMID: 19806218 PMCID: PMC2752795 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0007298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2009] [Accepted: 09/08/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A wide array of fluorescent proteins (FP) is present in anthozoans, although their biochemical characteristics and function in host tissue remain to be determined. Upregulation of FP's frequently occurs in injured or compromised coral tissue, suggesting a potential role of coral FPs in host stress responses. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS The presence of FPs was determined and quantified for a subsample of seven healthy Caribbean coral species using spectral emission analysis of tissue extracts. FP concentration was correlated with the in vivo antioxidant potential of the tissue extracts by quantifying the hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) scavenging rates. FPs of the seven species varied in both type and abundance and demonstrated a positive correlation between H(2)O(2) scavenging rate and FP concentration. To validate this data, the H(2)O(2) scavenging rates of four pure scleractinian FPs, cyan (CFP), green (GFP), red (RFP) and chromoprotein (CP), and their mutant counterparts (without chromophores), were investigated. In vitro, each FP scavenged H(2)O(2) with the most efficient being CP followed by equivalent activity of CFP and RFP. Scavenging was significantly higher in all mutant counterparts. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE Both naturally occurring and pure coral FPs have significant H(2)O(2) scavenging activity. The higher scavenging rate of RFP and the CP in vitro is consistent with observed increases of these specific FPs in areas of compromised coral tissue. However, the greater scavenging ability of the mutant counterparts suggests additional roles of scleractinian FPs, potentially pertaining to their color. This study documents H(2)O(2) scavenging of scleractinian FPs, a novel biochemical characteristic, both in vivo across multiple species and in vitro with purified proteins. These data support a role for FPs in coral stress and immune responses and highlights the multi-functionality of these conspicuous proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline V Palmer
- School of Biology, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom.
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Gruber DF, DeSalle R, Lienau EK, Tchernov D, Pieribone VA, Kao HT. Novel internal regions of fluorescent proteins undergo divergent evolutionary patterns. Mol Biol Evol 2009; 26:2841-8. [PMID: 19770223 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msp194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the past decade, fluorescent proteins (FPs) have become ubiquitous tools in biological research. Yet, little is known about the natural function or evolution of this superfamily of proteins that originate from marine organisms. Using molecular phylogenetic analyses of 102 naturally occurring cyan fluorescent proteins, green fluorescent proteins, red fluorescent proteins, as well as the nonfluorescent (purple-blue) protein sequences (including new FPs from Lizard Island, Australia) derived from organisms with known geographic origin, we show that FPs consist of two distinct and novel regions that have evolved under opposite and sharply divergent evolutionary pressures. A central region is highly conserved, and although it contains the residues that form the chromophore, its evolution does not track with fluorescent color and evolves independently from the rest of the protein. By contrast, the regions enclosing this central region are under strong positive selection pressure to vary its sequence and yet segregate well with fluorescence color emission. We did not find a significant correlation between geographic location of the organism from which the FP was isolated and molecular evolution of the protein. These results define for the first time two distinct regions based on evolution for this highly compact protein. The findings have implications for more sophisticated bioengineering of this molecule as well as studies directed toward understanding the natural function of FPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- David F Gruber
- Department of Natural Sciences, Baruch College, City University of New York, USA.
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Gruber DF, Kao HT, Janoschka S, Tsai J, Pieribone VA. Patterns of fluorescent protein expression in Scleractinian corals. THE BIOLOGICAL BULLETIN 2008; 215:143-154. [PMID: 18840775 DOI: 10.2307/25470695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Biofluorescence exists in only a few classes of organisms, with Anthozoa possessing the majority of species known to express fluorescent proteins. Most species within the Anthozoan subgroup Scleractinia (reef-building corals) not only express green fluorescent proteins, they also localize the proteins in distinct anatomical patterns.We examined the distribution of biofluorescence in 33 coral species, representing 8 families, from study sites on Australia's Great Barrier Reef. For 28 of these species, we report the presence of biofluorescence for the first time. The dominant fluorescent emissions observed were green (480-520 nm) and red (580-600 nm). Fluorescent proteins were expressed in three distinct patterns (highlighted, uniform, and complementary) among specific anatomical structures of corals across a variety of families. We report no significant overlap between the distribution of fluorescent proteins and the distribution of zooxanthellae. Analysis of the patterns of fluorescent protein distribution provides evidence that the scheme in which fluorescent proteins are distributed among the anatomical structures of corals is nonrandom. This targeted expression of fluorescent proteins in corals produces contrast and may function as a signaling mechanism to organisms with sensitivity to specific wavelengths of light.
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Affiliation(s)
- David F Gruber
- The Institute for Marine and Coastal Sciences, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA.
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