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Kamiński B, Paczesny J. Bacteriophage Challenges in Industrial Processes: A Historical Unveiling and Future Outlook. Pathogens 2024; 13:152. [PMID: 38392890 PMCID: PMC10893365 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13020152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Humans have used fermentation processes since the Neolithic period, mainly to produce beverages. The turning point occurred in the 1850s, when Louis Pasteur discovered that fermentation resulted from the metabolism of living microorganisms. This discovery led to the fast development of fermented food production. The importance of industrial processes based on fermentation significantly increased. Many branches of industry rely on the metabolisms of bacteria, for example, the dairy industry (cheese, milk, yogurts), pharmaceutical processes (insulin, vaccines, antibiotics), or the production of chemicals (acetone, butanol, acetic acid). These are the mass production processes involving a large financial outlay. That is why it is essential to minimize threats to production. One major threat affecting bacteria-based processes is bacteriophage infections, causing substantial economic losses. The first reported phage infections appeared in the 1930s, and companies still struggle to fight against phages. This review shows the cases of phage infections in industry and the most common methods used to prevent phage infections.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jan Paczesny
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland;
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2
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Backes N, Phillips GJ. Repurposing CRISPR-Cas Systems as Genetic Tools for the Enterobacteriales. EcoSal Plus 2021; 9:eESP00062020. [PMID: 34125584 PMCID: PMC11163844 DOI: 10.1128/ecosalplus.esp-0006-2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Over the last decade, the study of CRISPR-Cas systems has progressed from a newly discovered bacterial defense mechanism to a diverse suite of genetic tools that have been applied across all domains of life. While the initial applications of CRISPR-Cas technology fulfilled a need to more precisely edit eukaryotic genomes, creative "repurposing" of this adaptive immune system has led to new approaches for genetic analysis of microorganisms, including improved gene editing, conditional gene regulation, plasmid curing and manipulation, and other novel uses. The main objective of this review is to describe the development and current state-of-the-art use of CRISPR-Cas techniques specifically as it is applied to members of the Enterobacteriales. While many of the applications covered have been initially developed in Escherichia coli, we also highlight the potential, along with the limitations, of this technology for expanding the availability of genetic tools in less-well-characterized non-model species, including bacterial pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Backes
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
| | - Gregory J. Phillips
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, USA
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Khan MSI, Gao X, Liang K, Mei S, Zhan J. Virulent Drexlervirial Bacteriophage MSK, Morphological and Genome Resemblance With Rtp Bacteriophage Inhibits the Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:706700. [PMID: 34504479 PMCID: PMC8421802 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.706700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 06/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Phage-host interactions are likely to have the most critical aspect of phage biology. Phages are the most abundant and ubiquitous infectious acellular entities in the biosphere, where their presence remains elusive. Here, the novel Escherichia coli lytic bacteriophage, named MSK, was isolated from the lysed culture of E. coli C (phix174 host). The genome of phage MSK was sequenced, comprising 45,053 bp with 44.8% G + C composition. In total, 73 open reading frames (ORFs) were predicted, out of which 24 showed a close homology with known functional proteins, including one tRNA-arg; however, the other 49 proteins with no proven function in the genome database were called hypothetical. Electron Microscopy and genome characterization have revealed that MSK phage has a rosette-like tail tip. There were, in total, 46 ORFs which were homologous to the Rtp genome. Among these ORFs, the tail fiber protein with a locus tag of MSK_000019 was homologous to Rtp 43 protein, which determines the host specificity. The other protein, MSK_000046, encodes lipoprotein (cor gene); that protein resembles Rtp 45, responsible for preventing adsorption during cell lysis. Thirteen MSK structural proteins were identified by SDS-PAGE analysis. Out of these, 12 were vital structural proteins, and one was a hypothetical protein. Among these, the protein terminase large (MSK_000072) subunit, which may be involved in DNA packaging and proposed packaging strategy of MSK bacteriophage genome, takes place through headful packaging using the pac-sites. Biosafety assessment of highly stable phage MSK genome analysis has revealed that the phage did not possess virulence genes, which indicates proper phage therapy. MSK phage potentially could be used to inhibit the multidrug-resistant bacteria, including AMP, TCN, and Colistin. Further, a comparative genome and lifestyle study of MSK phage confirmed the highest similarity level (87.18% ANI). These findings suggest it to be a new lytic isolated phage species. Finally, Blast and phylogenetic analysis of the large terminase subunit and tail fiber protein put it in Rtp viruses' genus of family Drexlerviridae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Saleem Iqbal Khan
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Institute of the Second Affiliated Hospital (Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Intervention, China National Ministry of Education), School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiangzheng Gao
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Institute of the Second Affiliated Hospital (Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Intervention, China National Ministry of Education), School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Keying Liang
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Institute of the Second Affiliated Hospital (Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Intervention, China National Ministry of Education), School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Shengsheng Mei
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Institute of the Second Affiliated Hospital (Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Intervention, China National Ministry of Education), School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jinbiao Zhan
- Department of Biochemistry, Cancer Institute of the Second Affiliated Hospital (Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Intervention, China National Ministry of Education), School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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Application of a novel phage vB_SalS-LPSTLL for the biological control of Salmonella in foods. Food Res Int 2021; 147:110492. [PMID: 34399488 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2021.110492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Salmonella is one of the most common foodborne pathogens around the world. Phages are envisioned as a new strategy to control foodborne pathogenic bacteria and food safety. A Salmonella specific lytic phage vB_SalS-LPSTLL (LPSTLL) was selected for food applications on the basis of lytic range, lytic efficiency, functional stability and characteristics. Phage LPSTLL was able to lyse 11 Salmonella serotypes, which represents the broadest range reported Salmonella phages, and was able to suppress the growth of Salmonella enterica in liquid culture over nine hours. LPSTLL exhibited rapid reproductive activity with a short latent period and a large burst size in one-step growth experiment. LPSTLL remained active over a pH range of 3.0 to 12.0, and at incubation temperatures up to 60 °C for 60 min, indicating wide applicability for food processing and storage. Significant reductions of viable Salmonella were observed in diverse foods (milk, apple juice, chicken and lettuce) with reductions up to 2.8 log CFU/mL recorded for milk. Sensory evaluation indicated that treatment with phage LPSTLL did not alter the visual or tactile quality of food matrices. Genome analysis of LPSTLL indicated the absence of any virulence or antimicrobial resistance genes. Genomic comparisons suggest phage LPSTLL constitutes a novel member of a new genus, the LPSTLLvirus with the potential for Salmonella biocontrol in the food industry.
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Hantke K. Compilation of Escherichia coli K-12 outer membrane phage receptors - their function and some historical remarks. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2021; 367:5721240. [PMID: 32009155 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnaa013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Many Escherichia coli phages have been sequenced, but in most cases their sequences alone do not suffice to predict their host specificity. Analysis of phage resistant E. coli K-12 mutants have uncovered a certain set of outer membrane proteins and polysaccharides as receptors. In this review, a compilation of E. coli K12 phage receptors is provided and their functional characterization, often driven by studies on phage resistant mutants, is discussed in the historical context. While great progress has been made in this field thus far, several proteins in the outer membrane still await characterization as phage receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Hantke
- IMIT, Interfakultäres Institut für Mikrobiologie und Infektionsmedizin University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
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Koonjan S, Seijsing F, Cooper CJ, Nilsson AS. Infection Kinetics and Phylogenetic Analysis of vB_EcoD_SU57, a Virulent T1-Like Drexlerviridae Coliphage. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:565556. [PMID: 33329423 PMCID: PMC7718038 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.565556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The morphology, infection kinetics, genome sequence and phylogenetic characterization of the previously isolated bacteriophage vB_EcoD_SU57 are presented. The phage vB_EcoD_SU57 was isolated on Escherichia coli strain ECOR57 from the E. coli reference collection and was shown to produce four mm clear plaques with halos. Infection kinetics, as assessed by one-step growth analyses, suggest that vB_EcoD_SU57 is a virulent phage with an adsorption rate of 8.5 × 10-10 mL × min-1, a latency period of 14 min, and a burst size of 13 PFU per bacterium. Transmission electron microscopy confirmed vB_EcoD_SU57 to be a phage that used to be classified as a Siphoviridae phage. Bioinformatics analyses showed that the genome was 46,150 base pairs long, contained 29 genes with predicted protein functions, and 51 open reading frames encoding proteins with unknown function, many of which were gathered in clusters. A putative tRNA gene was also identified. Phylogenetic analyses showed that vB_EcoD_SU57 is a Braunvirinae phage of the newly formed Drexlerviridae family and closely related to T1-like E. coli phages vB_EcoS_ACG-M12 (Guelphvirus) and Rtp (Rtpvirus) as well as the unclassified phages vB_EcoS_CEB_EC3a and ECH1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shazeeda Koonjan
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Seijsing
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Callum J. Cooper
- School of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences and Wellbeing, University of Sunderland, Sunderland, United Kingdom
| | - Anders S. Nilsson
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, The Wenner-Gren Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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Cheng L, Wang J, Zhao X, Yin H, Fang H, Lin C, Zhang S, Shen Z, Zhao C. An antiphage Escherichia coli mutant for higher production of L-threonine obtained by atmospheric and room temperature plasma mutagenesis. Biotechnol Prog 2020; 36:e3058. [PMID: 32735374 DOI: 10.1002/btpr.3058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Revised: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Phage infection is common during the production of L-threonine by E. coli, and low L-threonine production and glucose conversion percentage are bottlenecks for the efficient commercial production of L-threonine. In this study, 20 antiphage mutants producing high concentration of L-threonine were obtained by atmospheric and room temperature plasma (ARTP) mutagenesis, and an antiphage E. coli variant was characterized that exhibited the highest production of L-threonine Escherichia coli ([E. coli] TRFC-AP). The elimination of fhuA expression in E. coli TRFC-AP was responsible for phage resistance. The biomass and cell growth of E. coli TRFC-AP showed no significant differences from those of the parent strain (E. coli TRFC), and the production of L-threonine (159.3 g L-1 ) and glucose conversion percentage (51.4%) were increased by 10.9% and 9.1%, respectively, compared with those of E. coli TRFC. During threonine production (culture time of 20 h), E. coli TRFC-AP exhibited higher activities of key enzymes for glucose utilization (hexokinase, glucose phosphate dehydrogenase, phosphofructokinase, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, and PYK) and threonine synthesis (glutamate synthase, aspartokinase, homoserine dehydrogenase, homoserine kinase and threonine synthase) compared to those of E. coli TRFC. The analysis of metabolic flux distribution indicated that the flux of threonine with E. coli TRFC-AP reached 69.8%, an increase of 16.0% compared with that of E. coli TRFC. Overall, higher L-threonine production and glucose conversion percentage were obtained with E. coli TRFC-AP due to increased activities of key enzymes and improved carbon flux for threonine synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Likun Cheng
- Shandong Research Center of High Cell Density Fermentation and Efficient Expression Technology, Shandong Lvdu Bio-science and Technology Co., Ltd, Shandong Binzhou Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine Academy, Binzhou, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Affiliated Hospital of Binzhou Medical University, Binzhou, China
| | - Xiubao Zhao
- Shandong Research Center of High Cell Density Fermentation and Efficient Expression Technology, Shandong Lvdu Bio-science and Technology Co., Ltd, Shandong Binzhou Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine Academy, Binzhou, China
| | - Huanhuan Yin
- Shandong Research Center of High Cell Density Fermentation and Efficient Expression Technology, Shandong Lvdu Bio-science and Technology Co., Ltd, Shandong Binzhou Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine Academy, Binzhou, China
| | - Haitian Fang
- Research and Development Center, Ningxia Eppen Biotech Co., Ltd, Yinchuan, China.,Ningxia Key Laboratory for Food Microbial-Applications Technology and Safety Control, School of Agriculture, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, China
| | - Chuwen Lin
- Shandong Research Center of High Cell Density Fermentation and Efficient Expression Technology, Shandong Lvdu Bio-science and Technology Co., Ltd, Shandong Binzhou Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine Academy, Binzhou, China
| | - Shasha Zhang
- Shandong Research Center of High Cell Density Fermentation and Efficient Expression Technology, Shandong Lvdu Bio-science and Technology Co., Ltd, Shandong Binzhou Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine Academy, Binzhou, China
| | - Zhiqiang Shen
- Shandong Research Center of High Cell Density Fermentation and Efficient Expression Technology, Shandong Lvdu Bio-science and Technology Co., Ltd, Shandong Binzhou Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine Academy, Binzhou, China
| | - Chunguang Zhao
- Research and Development Center, Ningxia Eppen Biotech Co., Ltd, Yinchuan, China.,Ningxia Key Laboratory for Food Microbial-Applications Technology and Safety Control, School of Agriculture, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, China
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9
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Lewis R, Hill C. Overcoming barriers to phage application in food and feed. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2019; 61:38-44. [PMID: 31726332 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2019.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Bacteriophages (phages) can play a useful role as narrow spectrum antimicrobials in food safety and in food production. Consumer attitudes towards traditional additives have led to a search for natural, potentially clean label, alternatives. At the same time, the rise in antimicrobial resistance has created a need for alternative antimicrobials for disease prevention and treatment in animal husbandry. Phages represent a viable option for both of these applications. We highlight important barriers which should be considered to improve the chance of a positive outcome when using phages in food and food production. These include the feasibility of adding high concentrations of phages, the physico-chemical properties of the food or target, how and when phages are applied, and which phages are chosen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhea Lewis
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork T12 YT20, Ireland; School of Microbiology, University College Cork, Cork T12 YN60, Ireland
| | - Colin Hill
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork T12 YT20, Ireland; School of Microbiology, University College Cork, Cork T12 YN60, Ireland.
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10
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Korf IHE, Meier-Kolthoff JP, Adriaenssens EM, Kropinski AM, Nimtz M, Rohde M, van Raaij MJ, Wittmann J. Still Something to Discover: Novel Insights into Escherichia coli Phage Diversity and Taxonomy. Viruses 2019; 11:E454. [PMID: 31109012 PMCID: PMC6563267 DOI: 10.3390/v11050454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Revised: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to gain further insight into the diversity of Escherichia coli phagesfollowed by enhanced work on taxonomic issues in that field. Therefore, we present the genomiccharacterization and taxonomic classification of 50 bacteriophages against E. coli isolated fromvarious sources, such as manure or sewage. All phages were examined for their host range on a setof different E. coli strains, originating, e.g., from human diagnostic laboratories or poultry farms.Transmission electron microscopy revealed a diversity of morphotypes (70% Myo-, 22% Sipho-, and8% Podoviruses), and genome sequencing resulted in genomes sizes from ~44 to ~370 kb.Annotation and comparison with databases showed similarities in particular to T4- and T5-likephages, but also to less-known groups. Though various phages against E. coli are already describedin literature and databases, we still isolated phages that showed no or only few similarities to otherphages, namely phages Goslar, PTXU04, and KWBSE43-6. Genome-based phylogeny andclassification of the newly isolated phages using VICTOR resulted in the proposal of new generaand led to an enhanced taxonomic classification of E. coli phages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imke H E Korf
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ⁻German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, 38124 Braunschweig,Germany.
| | - Jan P Meier-Kolthoff
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ⁻German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, 38124 Braunschweig,Germany.
| | | | - Andrew M Kropinski
- Departments of Food Science and Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Manfred Nimtz
- Protein Analytics Platform, Helmholtz-Centre for Infection Research (HZI), 38124 Braunschweig,Germany.
| | - Manfred Rohde
- Central Facility for Microscopy, Helmholtz-Centre for Infection Research (HZI), 38124 Braunschweig,Germany.
| | - Mark J van Raaij
- Department of Macromolecular Structure, Centro Nacional de Biotecnologia CNB-CSIC, 28049 Madrid,Spain.
| | - Johannes Wittmann
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ⁻German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, 38124 Braunschweig,Germany.
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Baltz RH. Bacteriophage-resistant industrial fermentation strains: from the cradle to CRISPR/Cas9. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 45:1003-1006. [DOI: 10.1007/s10295-018-2079-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Bacteriophage contamination and cell lysis have been recurring issues with some actinomycetes used in the pharmaceutical fermentation industry since the commercialization of streptomycin in the 1940s. In the early years, spontaneous phage-resistant mutants or lysogens were isolated to address the problem. In some cases, multiple phages were isolated from different contaminated fermentors, so strains resistant to multiple phages were isolated to stabilize the fermentation processes. With the advent of recombinant DNA technology, the early scaleup of the Escherichia coli fermentation process for the production of human insulin A and B chains encountered contamination with multiple coliphages. A genetic engineering solution was to clone and express a potent restriction/modification system in the production strains. Very recently, an E. coli fermentation of 1,3-propanediol was contaminated by a coliphage related to T1. CRISPR/Cas9 technology was applied to block future contamination by targeting seven different phage genes for double-strand cleavage. These approaches employing spontaneous mutation, genetic engineering, and synthetic biology can be applied to many current and future microorganisms used in the biotechnology industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard H Baltz
- Cognogen Biotechnology Consulting 7636 Andora Drive 34238 Sarasota FL USA
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Katz L, Chen YY, Gonzalez R, Peterson TC, Zhao H, Baltz RH. Synthetic biology advances and applications in the biotechnology industry: a perspective. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018; 45:449-461. [DOI: 10.1007/s10295-018-2056-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Synthetic biology is a logical extension of what has been called recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology or genetic engineering since the 1970s. As rDNA technology has been the driver for the development of a thriving biotechnology industry today, starting with the commercialization of biosynthetic human insulin in the early 1980s, synthetic biology has the potential to take the industry to new heights in the coming years. Synthetic biology advances have been driven by dramatic cost reductions in DNA sequencing and DNA synthesis; by the development of sophisticated tools for genome editing, such as CRISPR/Cas9; and by advances in informatics, computational tools, and infrastructure to facilitate and scale analysis and design. Synthetic biology approaches have already been applied to the metabolic engineering of microorganisms for the production of industrially important chemicals and for the engineering of human cells to treat medical disorders. It also shows great promise to accelerate the discovery and development of novel secondary metabolites from microorganisms through traditional, engineered, and combinatorial biosynthesis. We anticipate that synthetic biology will continue to have broadening impacts on the biotechnology industry to address ongoing issues of human health, world food supply, renewable energy, and industrial chemicals and enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonard Katz
- 0000 0001 2181 7878 grid.47840.3f QB3 Institute University of California-Berkeley 5885 Hollis St., 4th Floor 94608 Emeryville CA USA
| | - Yvonne Y Chen
- 0000 0000 9632 6718 grid.19006.3e Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering University of California-Los Angeles 420 Westwood Plaza, Boelter Hall 5531 90095 Los Angeles CA USA
| | - Ramon Gonzalez
- 0000 0004 1936 8278 grid.21940.3e Departments of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering and Bioengineering Rice University 6100 Main Street 77005 Houston TX USA
| | - Todd C Peterson
- grid.427368.c Synthetic Genomics, Inc. 11149 North Torrey Pines Road 92037 La Jolla CA USA
| | - Huimin Zhao
- 0000 0004 1936 9991 grid.35403.31 Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering University of Illinois 600 South Mathews Avenue 61801 Urbana IL USA
| | - Richard H Baltz
- CognoGen Biotechnology Consulting 7636 Andora Drive 34238 Sarasota FL USA
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