Semen characteristics of the Indian Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus murghi)

Influence of Bacterial Contamination and Antibiotic Sensitivity on Cryopreserved Sperm Quality of Indian Red Jungle Fowl

Aims: Bacterial contamination may occur in feces during collection and processing of semen. Bacteria not only compete for nutrients with spermatozoa but also produce toxic metabolites and endotoxins and affect sperm quality. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of antibiotic supplementation on the sperm quality of Indian red jungle fowl, estimation and isolation of bacterial species and their antibiotic sensitivity. Materials and Methods: Semen was collected and initially evaluated, diluted, and divided into six experimental extenders containing gentamicin (2.5 μg/mL), kanamycin (31.2 μg/mL), neomycin (62.5 mg/mL), penicillin (200 U/mL), and streptomycin (250 μg/mL), and a control having no antibiotics were cryopreserved and semen quality was evaluated at post-dilution, post-cooling, post-equilibration, and post-thawing stages (Experiment 1). A total aerobic bacterial count was carried out after culturing bacteria (Experiment 2) and subcultured for antibiotic sensitivity (Experiment 3). Results: It was shown that penicillin-containing extender improved semen quality (sperm motility, plasma membrane integrity, viability, and acrosomal integrity) compared with the control and other extenders having antibiotics. The bacteria isolated from semen were Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus spp., and Bacillus spp. Antibiotic sensitivity results revealed that E. coli shows high sensitivity toward neomycin, kanamycin, and penicillin. Staphylococcus spp. shows high sensitivity toward streptomycin, neomycin, and penicillin. Bacillus spp. shows high sensitivity toward kanamycin and penicillin. Conclusions: It was concluded that antibiotics added to semen extender did not cause any toxicity and maintained semen quality as that of untreated control samples, and penicillin was identified as most effective antibiotic. It is recommended that penicillin can be added to the semen extender for control of bacterial contamination without affecting the semen quality of Indian red jungle fowl.

Effect of ascorbic acid on metabolic status, lipid peroxidation, antioxidant activity and quality of frozen Indian red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus murghi) semen

The Indian red jungle fowl population is decreasing in its natural habitat. Its conservation through semen cryopreservation with sufficient live sperm recovery rate is requisite where ascorbic acid could play significant role to mitigate cryo-incited injuries. The objective was to elucidate the effect of ascorbic acid on freezability of Indian red jungle fowl sperm. Pooled semen was aliquoted and diluted (1:5) with red fowl extender having ascorbic acid: 0.0 (control), 1.0, 2.0 and 4.0 mM. Diluted samples were cryopreserved and semen quality was assessed at post-dilution, cooling, equilibration and freeze-thawing stages. Sperm metabolic status, antioxidant potential and lipid peroxidation were studied at post-dilution and freeze-thawing. Sperm motility did not differ (p > .05) in experimental extenders and control at post-dilution and cooling; however, it was recorded higher (p < .05) with ascorbic acid at 2.0 mM compared with other levels at post-equilibration and post-thawing stage. Sperm viability, plasma membrane and acrosome intactness were recorded higher (p < .05) with 2.0 mM ascorbic acid compared with other concentrations of ascorbic acid at all stages of cryopreservation. Sperm metabolic status and antioxidant potential were recorded higher (p < .05), while lipid peroxidation was recorded lowest (p < .05) with 2.0 mM ascorbic acid compared with 1.0, 4.0 mM and control. In conclusion, ascorbic acid at 2.0 mM in red fowl extender improves quality, metabolic status and antioxidant potential of frozen Indian red jungle fowl semen through ameliorating lipid peroxidation.

Morphological Characteristics of the Sperm of the Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) during the Reproductive Season

The morphological characteristics of different sperm cells (normal, abnormal, and immature) in the peregrine falcon during the reproductive season were analysed. We also classified the main sperm defects found in semen. Semen samples were collected from mature peregrine falcons via cloacal massage and stained with Diff-Quik stain. The percentages of normal, abnormal, and immature sperm cells were determined by bright-field optical microscopy. The number of normal spermatozoa were greater at the initial stage and subsequently decreased during the middle and later stages of the reproductive season (p < 0.01). In contrast, the percentage of abnormal spermatozoa increased significantly in the middle and end stages of the reproductive season (p < 0.05), whereas the proportion of immature spermatozoa remained stable during the study. Head defects represented the greatest proportion of morphological abnormalities, followed by the defects in the tail and midpiece regions. A small percentage of multiple defects and cytoplasmic droplets were also observed in the falcon spermatozoa. The findings of this study might be important for the development of future conservation protocols for falcon sperm.

Characteristics of capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus) semen analysed with flow cytometry combined with fertility results

In order to increase the reproductive indices of capercaillie kept in closed breeding facilities, it is necessary to constantly expand the methods of better understanding the characteristics of sperm and their fertilizing potency. The aim of the study was to analyse selected features of capercaillie sperm using flow cytometry and their connection with fertility results. The study included five males, three of which were kept in a family group with eight females and two were kept alone. For sperm viability, acrosome integrity, mitochondrial potential and DNA defragmentation were assessed. Paternity analyses were performed in order to confirm the paternity of the individual and to link the evaluated semen traits with reproductive success. Analyses carried out in the flow cytometer showed any significant differences between males in sperm characteristics. In the semen of male No. 101, the father of all chicks from the analysed family group, 91.3% of live sperm, 91.5% with intact acrosome, 83.6% with active mitochondria and 2.0% with DNA defragmentation were observed. The average fertility rate was 71.0%, and chick hatchability was 100%. Using flow cytometry in the analysis of capercaillie semen and its connection with the results of natural mating, we were able to obtain deeper knowledge about new sperm characteristics that were not examined before and which in the future may be helpful in selecting males for the reproductive flocks and developing assisted reproduction techniques.

Effect of Quercetin on Oxidative Stress, Mitochondrial Activity, and Quality of Indian Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus murghi) Sperm

Aim: The study was designed to elucidate the effects of quercetin in an extender on oxidative stress, mitochondrial activity and quality of Indian red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus murghi) sperm during cryopreservation. Materials and Methods: Semen was collected from seven adult males through abdominal massage and evaluated for semen volume, concentration, and motility. The qualifying semen ejaculates having >80% motility were diluted in red fowl extenders with 0 (control), 5, 10, 15, and 20 mM quercetin. Diluted semen was frozen following a glycerol-based protocol. Semen quality (motility, plasma membrane integrity, viability, acrosome integrity, and chromatin condensation status) and biochemical parameters (mitochondrial activity, ferric reducing antioxidant power, and malondialdehyde [MDA]) were determined at various stages of cryopreservation. Results: Sperm motility, plasma membrane integrity, viability, acrosome integrity, and chromatin condensation were recorded highest (p < 0.05) with 15 mM quercetin compared with 5, 10, and 20 mM quercetin and control at post-dilution, cooling, equilibration, and freeze-thawing. Nevertheless, mitochondrial activity and antioxidant potential were recorded highest with 15 mM quercetin compared with all experimental extenders at post-equilibration and freeze-thawing. MDA concentration in sperm and seminal plasma were recorded lowest (p < 0.05) in the extender having 15 mM quercetin at post-equilibration and freeze-thawing. Cryopreservation stages showed negative effects (p < 0.05) on semen quality parameters, irrespective of experimental extenders. Conclusions: It is concluded that quercetin (15 mM) supplementation in red fowl extender improves sperm motility, plasma membrane integrity, viability, acrosome integrity, chromatin condensation, and mitochondrial activity by elevating the total antioxidant potential and ameliorating lipid peroxidation during cryopreservation.

Intravaginal insemination depth influences fertility outcomes in Indian red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus murghi)

The depth of intravaginal insemination to achieve optimum fertility with frozen-thawed semen is highly species specific in birds and differ even in breed and/or strains of a species. Therefore, study was designed to evaluate the influence of intravaginal insemination depths (2 and 4 cm) on fertility outcome in Indian red jungle fowl. Semen collected from eight mature cocks was pooled, diluted in extender and cooled to 4 °C. Glycerol (20%) was added to chilled semen, equilibrated for 10 min and cryopreserved. After 3 days of storage, frozen semen was thawed in water bath at 37 °C for 30 s. After glycerol removal, intravaginal Inseminations were performed at the depth of 2 and 4 cm. The no. of fertilized eggs (31.4 ± 1.6 vs. 27.7 ± 1.8), fertility rate (65.7 ± 3.6 vs. 58.8 ± 4.0), no. of hatched chicks (27.8 ± 1.9 vs. 23.5 ± 1.6), hatchability of set eggs (58.8 ± 4.3 vs. 49.7 ± 3.2) and hatchability of fertilized eggs (88.4 ± 2.8 vs. 84.3 ± 2.2) were recorded higher with intravaginal depth of 4 cm compared to 2 cm. It is concluded that intravaginal insemination at the depth of 4 cm enhances the fertility outcomes of the frozen-thawed Indian red jungle fowl semen.

Zinc pyrithione induces immobilization of human spermatozoa and suppresses the response of the cAMP/PKA signaling pathway

Zinc pyrithione (ZPT), a zinc coordination complex, is used as an antimicrobial agent. This study investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying ZPT-induced spermatozoa immobilization by examining plasma membrane integrity, mitochondrial dysfunction, and the cAMP/PKA signaling pathway response. ZPT inhibited spermatozoa motility and movement patterns in a concentration-dependent manner. The 100% effective concentration (EC₁₀₀) and median effective concentration (EC₅₀) at which ZPT-induced spermatozoa immobilization at 20 s were 40 μmol/L and 16.19 μmol/L, respectively. ZPT did not significantly disrupt spermatozoa plasma membranes, but it exerted a strong and significant effect on the depolarization of mitochondria. In addition, ZPT exposure induced intracellular H⁺ accumulation and Ca²⁺ dissipation in spermatozoa, accompanied by suppression of the cAMP/PKA signaling pathway. Thus, ZPT induces spermatozoa immobilization without significant plasma membrane injury and so could be a candidate microbicidal spermicide.

Cryoprotectant effects of egg yolk on Indian red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus murghi) sperm

Egg yolk is a good external cryoprotectant of mammalian sperm and some wild bird's sperm, but, at least in domestic breeds of chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus), it may inhibit eventual fertilization of ova when high concentrations are used. We hypothesized that egg yolk can protect the sperm from cryo-induced damages providing adequate fertilization in one phylogenetic wild ancestor of current chicken breeds: the Indian red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus murghi). To test the hypothesis, the present study was designed to evaluate different concentrations of egg yolk in extender in comparison with glycerol. Semen collected from Indian red jungle fowl cocks (n = 8) was cryopreserved using different egg yolk concentrations (10%, 15%, 20% and 25%) or 20% glycerol (control group) following routine protocol of cryopreservation. During cryopreservation, sperm motility (67.5 ± 2.5%), plasma membrane integrity (66.3 ± 2.4%), viability (58.8 ± 1.3%) and acrosomal integrity (60.0.8 ± 2.0%) were recorded highest in an extender with 15% egg yolk compared to other experimental extenders and control at post-dilution, cooling, equilibration and thawing. The no. of fertilized eggs (26.6 ± 0.7, 21.6 ± 1.2), percent fertility (55.9 ± 4.4, 46.5 ± 2.2), no. of hatched chicks (23.6 ± 1.0, 17.2 ± 1.0), percent hatch (49.5 ± 3.2, 37.1 ± 2.5%) and hatchability of the fertile eggs (89.4 ± 2.2, 79.7 ± 3.7) were recorded higher (P < 0.05) with semen cryopreserved with 15% egg yolk compared to control (20% glycerol). It is concluded that 15% egg yolk can be used in cryopreservation protocol of Indian red jungle fowl sperm.

Effect of season and age on Indian red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus murghi) semen characteristics: A 4-year retrospective study

The reproductive potential of the adult males is expected to vary with age/season and largely differ not only in closely related avian species but even in subspecies, breeds and/or strains of the same species. Thus, it is pre-requisite to have knowledge of seminal parameters to achieve maximum production potential of at-risk species for ex situ in vitro conservation programs. A 4-year study was designed to evaluate the effect of age and season (spring, summer, autumn and winter) on semen characteristics of Indian red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus murghi) in a retrospective manner. Semen ejaculates (n = 1148) were regularly collected from eight adult cocks 6 to 54 months of age. Quantitative and qualitative semen parameters viz; volume (μL), concentration (1 × 10⁹ mL^-1), total sperm number per ejaculate (1 × 10⁹ mL^-1), motility (%), viability (%), plasma membrane integrity (%), acrosome integrity (%) and semen quality factor were recorded. A chronological increasing trend with age of most sperm quantitative and qualitative traits (semen volume, sperm concentration, total sperm number per ejaculate, plasma membrane integrity, viability, acrosomal integrity and semen quality factor) was observed. The highest values were observed at four years of age (P < 0.05) with the exception of sperm motility that was not affected by the age. Spring was the best season for sperm parameters viz; volume, motility, plasma membrane integrity, viability and acrosomal integrity (P < 0.05), however a remarkable sperm production was noticed all over the year. It is concluded that Indian red jungle fowl exhibits an evolution of sperm production that greatly differs in many points from other fowl sub-species. It is suggested that semen ejaculates of highest quality achieved for semen banking at the age of four year in the spring season.