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Thormann K, Lüthi AS, Deniau F, Heider A, Cazzaniga S, Radonjic-Hoesli S, Lehmann M, Schlapbach C, Herzog EL, Kreuzer M, Zinkernagel MS, Akdis CA, Zysset-Burri DC, Simon HU, Simon D. Dupilumab-associated ocular surface disease is characterized by a shift from Th2/Th17 toward Th1/Th17 inflammation. Allergy 2024; 79:937-948. [PMID: 38317432 DOI: 10.1111/all.16045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/01/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dupilumab is used for the treatment of atopic dermatitis (AD). Approximately one third of AD patients develop a dupilumab-associated ocular surface disease (DAOSD), of which the pathomechanism is poorly understood. This study aimed at investigating inflammatory markers in tear fluids of patients on dupilumab therapy. METHODS Tear fluids were collected from AD patients with DAOSD (ADwDAOSD), AD patients without DAOSD (ADw/oDAOSD), and non-AD patients before and during dupilumab therapy, and analyzed using a specialized proteomic approach quantifying inflammatory markers. The ocular surface microbiome was determined by next generation sequencing technology. RESULTS Upon dupilumab therapy, an upregulation of 31 inflammatory markers was observed in DAOSD tear fluids compared to baseline in AD patients. While IL-12B was upregulated in both ADwDAOSD and ADw/oDAOSD groups, the pattern of inflammatory markers significantly differed between groups and over time. In the ADwDAOSD group, a shift from a mixed Th2/Th17 pattern at baseline toward a Th1/Th17 profile under dupilumab was observed. Furthermore, an upregulation of remodeling and fibrosis markers was seen in DAOSD. Semantic map and hierarchical cluster analyses of baseline marker expression revealed four clusters distinguishing between AD and non-AD as well as ADwDAOSD and ADw/oDAOSD patient groups. In a pilot study, dupilumab therapy was associated with a decrease in richness of the ocular surface microbiome. CONCLUSIONS DAOSD is characterized by a Th1/Th17 cytokine profile and an upregulation of markers known to promote remodeling and fibrosis. The expression pattern of inflammatory markers in tear fluids at baseline might serve as a prognostic factor for DAOSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Thormann
- Department of Dermatology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Anne-Sophie Lüthi
- Department of Dermatology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Felix Deniau
- Department of Ophthalmology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Anja Heider
- Swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research, University of Zurich, Davos, Switzerland
| | - Simone Cazzaniga
- Department of Dermatology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Centro Studi GISED, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Susanne Radonjic-Hoesli
- Department of Dermatology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Mathias Lehmann
- Department of Dermatology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Schlapbach
- Department of Dermatology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Elio L Herzog
- Department of Ophthalmology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Department for BioMedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Marco Kreuzer
- Interfaculty Bioinformatics Unit and Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Martin S Zinkernagel
- Department of Ophthalmology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Department for BioMedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Cezmi A Akdis
- Swiss Institute of Allergy and Asthma Research, University of Zurich, Davos, Switzerland
| | - Denise C Zysset-Burri
- Department of Ophthalmology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Department for BioMedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Hans-Uwe Simon
- Institute of Pharmacology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Institute of Biochemistry, Brandenburg Medical School, Neuruppin, Germany
| | - Dagmar Simon
- Department of Dermatology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Song D, Yang Q, Li X, Chen K, Tong J, Shen Y. The role of the JAK/STAT3 signaling pathway in acquired corneal diseases. Exp Eye Res 2024; 238:109748. [PMID: 38081573 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2023.109748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 11/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/05/2023] [Indexed: 01/02/2024]
Abstract
Acquired corneal diseases such as dry eye disease (DED), keratitis and corneal alkali burns are significant contributors to vision impairment worldwide, and more effective and innovative therapies are urgently needed. The Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (JAK/STAT3) signaling pathway plays an indispensable role in cell metabolism, inflammation and the immune response. Studies have shown that regulators of this pathway are extensively expressed in the cornea, inducing significant activation of JAK/STAT3 signaling in specific acquired corneal diseases. The activation of JAK/STAT3 signaling contributes to various pathophysiological processes in the cornea, including inflammation, neovascularization, fibrosis, and wound healing. In the context of DED, the hypertonic environment activates JAK/STAT3 signaling to stimulate corneal inflammation. Inflammation and injury progression in infectious keratitis can also be modulated by JAK/STAT3 signaling. Furthermore, JAK/STAT3 signaling is involved in every stage of corneal repair after alkali burns, including acute inflammation, angiogenesis and fibrosis. Treatments modulating JAK/STAT3 signaling have shown promising results in attenuating corneal damage, indicating its potential as a novel therapeutic target. Thus, this review emphasizes the multiple roles of the JAK/STAT3 signaling pathway in common acquired corneal disorders and summarizes the current achievements of JAK/STAT3-targeting therapy to provide new insights into future applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongjie Song
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Yiwu, China
| | - Qianjie Yang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiang Li
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Kuangqi Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Jianping Tong
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Ye Shen
- Department of Ophthalmology, The First Affiliated Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.
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3
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Bruschi G, Ghiglioni DG, Cozzi L, Osnaghi S, Viola F, Marchisio P. Vernal Keratoconjunctivitis: A Systematic Review. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2023; 65:277-329. [PMID: 37658939 PMCID: PMC10567967 DOI: 10.1007/s12016-023-08970-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
Vernal keratoconjunctivitis (VKC) is a chronic, bilateral corneal and conjunctival problem which typically presents in young individuals. VKC is characterized by itching, photophobia, white mucous discharge, lacrimation, foreign body sensation, and pain due to corneal involvement of shield ulcers. Vernal keratoconjunctivitis is categorized within ocular diseases. The diagnosis is clinical, as no sure biomarkers pathognomonic of the disease have yet been identified. The VKC therapy relies on different types of drugs, from antihistamines and topical steroids to cyclosporine or tacrolimus eye drops. In extremely rare cases, there is also the need for surgical treatment for the debridement of ulcers, as well as for advanced glaucoma and cataracts, caused by excessive prolonged use of steroid eye drops. We performed a systematic review of the literature, according to PRISMA guideline recommendations. We searched the PubMed database from January 2016 to June 2023. Search terms were Vernal, Vernal keratoconjunctivitis, and VKC. We initially identified 211 articles. After the screening process, 168 studies were eligible according to our criteria and were included in the review. In this study, we performed a systematic literature review to provide a comprehensive overview of currently available diagnostic methods, management of VKC, and its treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniele Giovanni Ghiglioni
- Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico di Milano, Via della Commenda 9, 20122, Milan, Italy.
| | - Laura Cozzi
- Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Silvia Osnaghi
- Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico di Milano, Via della Commenda 9, 20122, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Viola
- Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
- Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico di Milano, Via della Commenda 9, 20122, Milan, Italy
| | - Paola Marchisio
- Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
- Fondazione IRCCS Ca' Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico di Milano, Via della Commenda 9, 20122, Milan, Italy
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Hydrogen Sulfide Downregulates Oncostatin M Expression via PI3K/Akt/NF-κB Signaling Processes in Neutrophil-like Differentiated HL-60 Cells. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:antiox12020417. [PMID: 36829975 PMCID: PMC9952767 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12020417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 02/04/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The cytokine oncostatin M (OSM) is regarded as a critical mediator in various inflammatory responses. While the gaseous signaling molecule hydrogen sulfide (H2S) plays a role in a variety of pathophysiological conditions, such as hypertension, inflammatory pain, osteoarthritis, ischemic stroke, oxidative stress, retinal degeneration, and inflammatory responses, the underlying mechanism of H2S action on OSM expression in neutrophils needs to be clarified. In this work, we studied how H2S reduces OSM expression in neutrophil-like differentiated (d)HL-60 cells. To evaluate the effects of H2S, sodium hydrosulfide (NaHS, a donor that produces H2S), ELISA, real-time PCR (qPCR), immunoblotting, and immunofluorescence staining were utilized. Although exposure to granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) resulted in upregulated levels of production and mRNA expression of OSM, these upregulated levels were reduced by pretreatment with NaHS in dHL-60 cells. Similarly, the same pretreatment lowered phosphorylated levels of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, Akt, and nuclear factor-kB that had been elevated by stimulation with GM-CSF. Overall, our results indicated that H2S could be a therapeutic agent for inflammatory disorders via suppression of OSM.
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Ninomiya I, Yamatoya K, Mashimo K, Matsuda A, Usui-Ouchi A, Araki Y, Ebihara N. Role of Oncostatin M in the Pathogenesis of Vernal Keratoconjunctivitis: Focus on the Barrier Function of the Epithelium and Interleukin-33 Production by Fibroblasts. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2022; 63:26. [PMID: 36580308 PMCID: PMC9804018 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.63.13.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Vernal keratoconjunctivitis (VKC) is a severe, recurrent allergic conjunctivitis. Previously, we found high concentrations of oncostatin M (OSM) in the tears of patients with VKC. Here, we investigated the role of OSM in VKC by focusing on epithelial barrier function and IL-33 production. Methods To assess the effect of OSM on the barrier function of human conjunctival epithelial cells (HConEpiCs), we measured transepithelial electrical resistance and dextran permeability. We also assessed expression of tight junction-related proteins such as E-cadherin and ZO-1 in HConEpiCs by Western blotting and immunofluorescence. Then we used immunohistochemistry to evaluate expression of Ki-67, E-cadherin, epithelial-mesenchymal transition-related proteins, and IL-33 in giant papillae (GPs) from patients with VKC. In addition, we used Western blotting, microarray, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to examine whether OSM activates signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (STAT1) or STAT3 and induces the expression of various genes in human conjunctival fibroblasts (HConFs). Results OSM reduced expression of E-cadherin and ZO-1 in HConEpiCs, indicating barrier dysfunction. In immunohistochemistry, Ki-67 expression was present in the lower epithelial layer of the GPs, and E-cadherin expression was reduced in the superficial and lower layers; double staining revealed that GPs had a high number of fibroblasts expressing IL-33. In addition, in HConFs, OSM phosphorylated both STAT1 and STAT3 and induced IL-33. Conclusions OSM has important roles in severe, prolonged allergic inflammation by inducing epithelial barrier dysfunction and IL-33 production by conjunctival fibroblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ishin Ninomiya
- Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan,Department of Ophthalmology, Juntendo University Urayasu Hospital, Chiba, Japan,Institute for Environmental and Gender-Specific Medicine, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba, Japan
| | - Kenji Yamatoya
- Institute for Environmental and Gender-Specific Medicine, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba, Japan
| | - Keitaro Mashimo
- Department of Ophthalmology, Juntendo University Urayasu Hospital, Chiba, Japan
| | - Akira Matsuda
- Department of Ophthalmology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ayumi Usui-Ouchi
- Department of Ophthalmology, Juntendo University Urayasu Hospital, Chiba, Japan
| | - Yoshihiko Araki
- Institute for Environmental and Gender-Specific Medicine, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba, Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Ebihara
- Department of Ophthalmology, Juntendo University Urayasu Hospital, Chiba, Japan,Institute for Environmental and Gender-Specific Medicine, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba, Japan
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Rankouhi TR, Keulen DV, Tempel D, Venhorst J. Oncostatin M: Risks and Benefits of a Novel Therapeutic Target for Atherosclerosis. Curr Drug Targets 2022; 23:1345-1369. [PMID: 35959619 DOI: 10.2174/1389450123666220811101032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a leading cause of death worldwide. It is predicted that approximately 23.6 million people will die from CVDs annually by 2030. Therefore, there is a great need for an effective therapeutic approach to combat this disease. The European Cardiovascular Target Discovery (CarTarDis) consortium identified Oncostatin M (OSM) as a potential therapeutic target for atherosclerosis. The benefits of modulating OSM - an interleukin (IL)-6 family cytokine - have since been studied for multiple indications. However, as decades of high attrition rates have stressed, the success of a drug target is determined by the fine balance between benefits and the risk of adverse events. Safety issues should therefore not be overlooked. OBJECTIVE In this review, a risk/benefit analysis is performed on OSM inhibition in the context of atherosclerosis treatment. First, OSM signaling characteristics and its role in atherosclerosis are described. Next, an overview of in vitro, in vivo, and clinical findings relating to both the benefits and risks of modulating OSM in major organ systems is provided. Based on OSM's biological function and expression profile as well as drug intervention studies, safety concerns of inhibiting this target have been identified, assessed, and ranked for the target population. CONCLUSION While OSM may be of therapeutic value in atherosclerosis, drug development should also focus on de-risking the herein identified major safety concerns: tissue remodeling, angiogenesis, bleeding, anemia, and NMDA- and glutamate-induced neurotoxicity. Close monitoring and/or exclusion of patients with various comorbidities may be required for optimal therapeutic benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Rouhani Rankouhi
- Department of Risk Analysis for Products in Development, TNO, Utrechtseweg 48, 3704 HE, Zeist, The Netherlands
| | - Daniëlle van Keulen
- SkylineDx BV, Science and Clinical Development, 3062 ME Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Dennie Tempel
- SkylineDx BV, Science and Clinical Development, 3062 ME Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jennifer Venhorst
- Department of Risk Analysis for Products in Development, TNO, Utrechtseweg 48, 3704 HE, Zeist, The Netherlands
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Ursolic Acid Suppresses Oncostatin M Expression through Blockade of PI3K/Akt/NF-κB Signaling Processes in Neutrophil-like Differentiated HL-60 Cells. Processes (Basel) 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/pr10020220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytokine oncostatin M (OSM) plays an important role in a variety of inflammatory reactions and is mainly produced in neutrophils in inflammatory diseases. While natural pentacyclic triterpenoid ursolic acid (UA) possesses a wide range of beneficial effects, such as anti-oxidant, anti-tumor, and anti-inflammatory, the regulatory processes of OSM suppression by UA in neutrophils are still poorly understood. This study was aimed at examining how UA regulates OSM expression in neutrophil-like differentiated (d)HL-60 cells. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and immunoblotting were employed to analyze the effects of UA. Whereas stimulation with granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) led to elevations of OSM production and mRNA expression, these elevations were lowered by treatment with UA in neutrophil-like dHL-60 cells. When the cells were exposed to GM-CSF, phosphorylated levels of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, Akt, and nuclear factor-kB were upregulated. However, the upregulations were diminished by treatment with UA in neutrophil-like dHL-60 cells. The results of this study proposed that UA might relieve inflammatory diseases via inhibition of OSM.
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Han NR, Park HJ, Moon PD. Resveratrol Downregulates Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor-Induced Oncostatin M Production through Blocking of PI3K/Akt/NF-κB Signal Cascade in Neutrophil-like Differentiated HL-60 Cells. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2022; 44:541-549. [PMID: 35723323 PMCID: PMC8928961 DOI: 10.3390/cimb44020037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncostatin M (OSM) is essential in a wide range of inflammatory responses, and most OSM is produced by neutrophils in respiratory diseases. While resveratrol (RES) is regarded as an anti-inflammatory agent in a variety of conditions, the mechanism of OSM inhibition by RES in neutrophils remains to be elucidated. In this study, we investigated whether RES could inhibit OSM production in neutrophil-like differentiated (d)HL-60 cells. The effects of RES were measured by means of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, real-time polymerase chain reaction, and Western blotting. Increases in production and mRNA expression of OSM resulted from the addition of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) in neutrophil-like dHL-60 cells; however, these increases were downregulated by RES treatment. Exposure to GM-CSF led to elevations of phosphorylation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), Akt, and nuclear factor (NF)-kB. Treatment with RES induced downregulation of the phosphorylated levels of PI3K, Akt, and NF-κB in neutrophil-like dHL-60 cells. These results suggest that RES could be applicable to prevent and/or treat inflammatory disorders through blockade of OSM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na-Ra Han
- College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea;
- Korean Medicine-Based Drug Repositioning Cancer Research Center, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea
| | - Hi-Joon Park
- Department of Anatomy & Information Sciences, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea;
| | - Phil-Dong Moon
- Center for Converging Humanities, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-2-961-0897
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9
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Han NR, Ko SG, Park HJ, Moon PD. Dexamethasone Attenuates Oncostatin M Production via Suppressing of PI3K/Akt/NF-κB Signaling in Neutrophil-like Differentiated HL-60 Cells. Molecules 2021; 27:molecules27010129. [PMID: 35011361 PMCID: PMC8746434 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27010129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 12/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncostatin M (OSM) plays a role in various inflammatory reactions, and neutrophils are the main source of OSM in pulmonary diseases. However, there is no evidence showing the mechanism of OSM production in neutrophils. While dexamethasone (Dex) has been known to exert anti-inflammatory activity in various fields, the precise mechanisms of OSM downregulation by Dex in neutrophils remain to be determined. Here, we examined how OSM is produced in neutrophil-like differentiated HL-60 cells. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, real-time polymerase chain reaction, and Western blot analysis were utilized to assess the potential of Dex. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) stimulation resulted in OSM elevation in neutrophil-like dHL-60 cells. OSM elevation induced by GM-CSF is regulated by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/nuclear factor (NF)-kB signal cascades. GM-CSF stimulation upregulated phosphorylated levels of PI3K or Akt or NF-κB in neutrophil-like dHL-60 cells. Treatment with Dex decreased OSM levels as well as the phosphorylated levels of PI3K or Akt or NF-κB in neutrophil-like dHL-60 cells. Our findings show the potential of Dex in the treatment of inflammatory diseases via blocking of OSM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na-Ra Han
- College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea;
- Korean Medicine-Based Drug Repositioning Cancer Research Center, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea;
| | - Seong-Gyu Ko
- Korean Medicine-Based Drug Repositioning Cancer Research Center, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea;
- Department of Preventive Medicine, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea
| | - Hi-Joon Park
- Department of Anatomy & Information Sciences, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea;
| | - Phil-Dong Moon
- Center for Converging Humanities, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Korea
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-2-961-0897
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