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Cabezas AH, Mapitse NJ, Tizzani P, Sanchez-Vazquez MJ, Stone M, Park MK. Analysis of suspensions and recoveries of official foot and mouth disease free status of WOAH Members between 1996 and 2020. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:1013768. [PMID: 36387388 PMCID: PMC9650142 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.1013768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot and mouth disease was the first disease for which, in 1996, the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH; founded as OIE) established an official list of disease-free territories, which has helped to facilitate the trade of animals and animal products from those territories. Since that year, there have been a number of suspensions of FMD-free status which have impacted the livestock industry of the territories affected. The objective of this study is to identify factors associated with the time taken to recover FMD-free status after suspension. Historical applications submitted (between 1996 and the first semester of 2020) by WOAH Members for recognition and recovery of FMD-free status were used as the main source of data. Only FMD-free status suspensions caused by outbreaks were considered. Data on the Member's socio-economic characteristics, livestock production systems, FMD outbreak characteristics, and control strategies were targeted for the analysis. The period of time taken to recover FMD-free status was estimated using Kaplan-Meier survival curves. A Cox proportional hazard model was used to identify factors associated with the time taken to recover FMD-free status after suspension. A total of 163 territories were granted official FMD-free status during the study period. The study sample consisted of 45 FMD-free status suspensions. Africa and the Americas accounted for over 50% of FMD-free status suspensions, while over 70% of these occurred in formerly FMD-free territories where vaccination was not practiced. The study noted that implementing a stamping-out or vaccination and remove policy shortened the time to recover FMD-free status, compared with a vaccination and retain policy. Other variables associated with the outcome were the income level of the Member, Veterinary Service capacity, time taken to implement control measures, time taken until the disposal of the last FMD case, whether the territory bordered FMD-infected territories, and time elapsed since FMD freedom. This analysis will contribute toward the understanding of the main determinants affecting the time to recover the FMD free status of WOAH Members and policy processes for FMD control and elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurelio H. Cabezas
- Status Department, World Organization for Animal Health, Paris, France,*Correspondence: Aurelio H. Cabezas
| | - Neo J. Mapitse
- Status Department, World Organization for Animal Health, Paris, France
| | - Paolo Tizzani
- World Animal Health Information and Analysis Department, World Organization for Animal Health, Paris, France
| | - Manuel J. Sanchez-Vazquez
- Pan American Center for Foot-and-Mouth Disease and Veterinary Public Health, Communicable Diseases and Environmental Determinants of Health, Pan American Health Organization/World Health Organization, Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Matthew Stone
- International Standards and Science, World Organization for Animal Health, Paris, France
| | - Min-Kyung Park
- Status Department, World Organization for Animal Health, Paris, France,Min-Kyung Park
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2
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Hering R, Hauptfleisch M, Jago M, Smith T, Kramer-Schadt S, Stiegler J, Blaum N. Don't stop me now: Managed fence gaps could allow migratory ungulates to track dynamic resources and reduce fence related energy loss. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.907079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In semi-arid environments characterized by erratic rainfall and scattered primary production, migratory movements are a key survival strategy of large herbivores to track resources over vast areas. Veterinary Cordon Fences (VCFs), intended to reduce wildlife-livestock disease transmission, fragment large parts of southern Africa and have limited the movements of large wild mammals for over 60 years. Consequently, wildlife-fence interactions are frequent and often result in perforations of the fence, mainly caused by elephants. Yet, we lack knowledge about at which times fences act as barriers, how fences directly alter the energy expenditure of native herbivores, and what the consequences of impermeability are. We studied 2-year ungulate movements in three common antelopes (springbok, kudu, eland) across a perforated part of Namibia's VCF separating a wildlife reserve and Etosha National Park using GPS telemetry, accelerometer measurements, and satellite imagery. We identified 2905 fence interaction events which we used to evaluate critical times of encounters and direct fence effects on energy expenditure. Using vegetation type-specific greenness dynamics, we quantified what animals gained in terms of high quality food resources from crossing the VCF. Our results show that the perforation of the VCF sustains herbivore-vegetation interactions in the savanna with its scattered resources. Fence permeability led to peaks in crossing numbers during the first flush of woody plants before the rain started. Kudu and eland often showed increased energy expenditure when crossing the fence. Energy expenditure was lowered during the frequent interactions of ungulates standing at the fence. We found no alteration of energy expenditure when springbok immediately found and crossed fence breaches. Our results indicate that constantly open gaps did not affect energy expenditure, while gaps with obstacles increased motion. Closing gaps may have confused ungulates and modified their intended movements. While browsing, sedentary kudu's use of space was less affected by the VCF; migratory, mixed-feeding springbok, and eland benefited from gaps by gaining forage quality and quantity after crossing. This highlights the importance of access to vast areas to allow ungulates to track vital vegetation patches.
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Rathogwa NM, Scott KA, Opperman P, Theron J, Maree FF. Efficacy of SAT2 Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccines Formulated with Montanide ISA 206B and Quil-A Saponin Adjuvants. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9090996. [PMID: 34579233 PMCID: PMC8473074 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9090996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The effective control of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) relies strongly on the separation of susceptible and infected livestock or susceptible livestock and persistently infected wildlife, vaccination, and veterinary sanitary measures. Vaccines affording protection against multiple serotypes for longer than six months and that are less reliant on the cold chain during handling are urgently needed for the effective control of FMD in endemic regions. Although much effort has been devoted to improving the immune responses elicited through the use of modern adjuvants, their efficacy is dependent on the formulation recipe, target species and administration route. Here we compared and evaluated the efficacy of two adjuvant formulations in combination with a structurally stabilized SAT2 vaccine antigen, designed to have improved thermostability, antigen shelf-life and longevity of antibody response. Protection mediated by the Montanide ISA 206B-adjuvanted or Quil-A Saponin-adjuvanted SAT2 vaccines were comparable. The Montanide ISA 206B-adjuvanted vaccine elicited a higher SAT2 neutralizing antibody response and three times higher levels of systemic IFN-γ responses at 14- and 28-days post-vaccination (dpv) were observed compared to the Quil-A Saponin-adjuvanted vaccine group. Interestingly, serum antibodies from the immunized animals reacted similarly to the parental vaccine virus and viruses containing mutations in the VP2 protein that simulate antigenic drift in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ntungufhadzeni M. Rathogwa
- Vaccines and Diagnostic Development, Onderstepoort Veterinary Research, Agricultural Research Council, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa; (N.M.R.); (K.A.S.); (P.O.)
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa;
| | - Katherine A. Scott
- Vaccines and Diagnostic Development, Onderstepoort Veterinary Research, Agricultural Research Council, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa; (N.M.R.); (K.A.S.); (P.O.)
| | - Pamela Opperman
- Vaccines and Diagnostic Development, Onderstepoort Veterinary Research, Agricultural Research Council, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa; (N.M.R.); (K.A.S.); (P.O.)
- Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0110, South Africa
| | - Jacques Theron
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa;
| | - Francois F. Maree
- Vaccines and Diagnostic Development, Onderstepoort Veterinary Research, Agricultural Research Council, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa; (N.M.R.); (K.A.S.); (P.O.)
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa;
- Correspondence:
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Compston P, Limon G, Sangula A, Onono J, King DP, Häsler B. Understanding what shapes disease control: An historical analysis of foot-and-mouth disease in Kenya. Prev Vet Med 2021; 190:105315. [PMID: 33735817 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2021.105315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Interpreting the interplay between politics, social demographics and epidemiology is essential for understanding how a disease's occurrence and control evolve over time. Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus was first detected in Kenya in 1915 and serotyped in 1932. This review aims to describe and appraise initiatives to control FMD in Kenya since its independence from British rule in 1964, using information from the scientific literature. We describe the historical dynamics of FMD epidemiology in the country and determine socio-political factors that have shaped the control strategies used. PubMed, Scopus, CAB abstracts, Science Direct, Web of Science and Google Scholar were used to search and retrieve papers, using predetermined search criteria encompassing FMD, Kenya and disease control programme descriptors. In total 1234 papers were identified and screened for relevance using the World Health Organization's guidelines for rapid review. Ultimately 69 references from this search were included, and information extracted and consolidated. These papers highlight that following independence, there was a structured effort to control FMD consisting of a compulsory subsidised vaccination programme in the Rift Valley with movement controls and quarantine when outbreaks occurred. This programme led to an initial decrease in recorded FMD outbreaks. However, endemic circulation continued and this programme was discontinued due to multiple factors, including political deprioritisation and changes in the structure of veterinary services. Only low levels of active surveillance have been applied since 1964; most surveillance is passive and relies on outbreak reports. Currently control focuses on outbreak management and a mixture of public- and privately-funded vaccination. This review highlights critical drivers influencing disease control programme implementation including veterinary service structure, the active participation of stakeholders with farming systems and availability of affordable and matched FMD vaccine. Additionally, it appraises the availability of historical information and draws attention to gaps in the historical record.
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Affiliation(s)
- Polly Compston
- Veterinary Epidemiology, Economics and Public Health Group, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, AL9 7TA, UK; The Pirbright Institute, Ash Rd, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK.
| | - Georgina Limon
- Veterinary Epidemiology, Economics and Public Health Group, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, AL9 7TA, UK; The Pirbright Institute, Ash Rd, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK.
| | - Abraham Sangula
- Foot-and-mouth Disease National Reference Laboratory, Embakasi, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Joshua Onono
- Department of Public Health, Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Donald P King
- The Pirbright Institute, Ash Rd, Pirbright, Woking GU24 0NF, UK.
| | - Barbara Häsler
- Veterinary Epidemiology, Economics and Public Health Group, Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, AL9 7TA, UK.
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Dill V, Zimmer A, Beer M, Eschbaumer M. Targeted Modification of the Foot-And-Mouth Disease Virus Genome for Quick Cell Culture Adaptation. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:E583. [PMID: 33022922 PMCID: PMC7712165 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8040583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2020] [Revised: 09/19/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) causes the highly contagious foot-and-mouth disease, which is characterized by the appearance of vesicles in and around the mouth and feet of cloven-hoofed animals. BHK-21 cells are the cell line of choice for the propagation of FMDV for vaccine production worldwide but vary in their susceptibility for different FMDV strains. Previous studies showed that the FMDV resistance of a certain BHK cell line can be overcome by using a closely related but permissive cell line for the pre-adaptation of the virus, but the adapted strains were found to harbor several capsid mutations. In this study, these adaptive mutations were introduced into the original Asia-1 Shamir isolate individually or in combination to create a panel of 17 Asia-1 mutants by reverse genetics and examine the effects of the mutations on receptor usage, viral growth, immunogenicity and stability. A single amino acid exchange from glutamic acid to lysine at position 202 in VP1 turned out to be of major importance for productive infection of the suspension cell line BHK-2P. In consequence, two traditionally passage-derived strains and two recombinant viruses with a minimum set of mutations were tested in vivo. While the passaged-derived viruses showed a reduced particle stability, the genetically modified viruses were more stable but did not confer a protective immune response against the original virus isolate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Dill
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (V.D.); (M.B.)
| | - Aline Zimmer
- Merck KGaA, Merck Life Sciences, Upstream R&D, 64293 Darmstadt, Germany;
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (V.D.); (M.B.)
| | - Michael Eschbaumer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany; (V.D.); (M.B.)
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6
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Maake L, Harvey WT, Rotherham L, Opperman P, Theron J, Reeve R, Maree FF. Genetic Basis of Antigenic Variation of SAT3 Foot-And-Mouth Disease Viruses in Southern Africa. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:568. [PMID: 33102544 PMCID: PMC7506032 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) continues to be a major burden for livestock owners in endemic countries and a continuous threat to FMD-free countries. The epidemiology and control of FMD in Africa is complicated by the presence of five clinically indistinguishable serotypes. Of these the Southern African Territories (SAT) type 3 has received limited attention, likely due to its restricted distribution and it being less frequently detected. We investigated the intratypic genetic variation of the complete P1 capsid-coding region of 22 SAT3 viruses and confirmed the geographical distribution of five of the six SAT3 topotypes. The antigenic cross-reactivity of 12 SAT3 viruses against reference antisera was assessed by performing virus neutralization assays and calculating the r1-values, which is a ratio of the heterologous neutralizing titer to the homologous neutralizing titer. Interestingly, cross-reactivity between the SAT3 reference antisera and many SAT3 viruses was notably high (r1-values >0.3). Moreover, some of the SAT3 viruses reacted more strongly to the reference sera compared to the homologous virus (r1-values >1). An increase in the avidity of the reference antisera to the heterologous viruses could explain some of the higher neutralization titers observed. Subsequently, we used the antigenic variability data and corresponding genetic and structural data to predict naturally occurring amino acid positions that correlate with antigenic changes. We identified four unique residues within the VP1, VP2, and VP3 proteins, associated with a change in cross-reactivity, with two sites that change simultaneously. The analysis of antigenic variation in the context of sequence differences is critical for both surveillance-informed selection of effective vaccines and the rational design of vaccine antigens tailored for specific geographic localities, using reverse genetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorens Maake
- Vaccine and Diagnostic Development Programme, Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Agricultural Research Council, Pretoria, South Africa
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - William T Harvey
- Boyd Orr Centre for Population and Ecosystem Health, Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Lia Rotherham
- Vaccine and Diagnostic Development Programme, Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Agricultural Research Council, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Pamela Opperman
- Vaccine and Diagnostic Development Programme, Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Agricultural Research Council, Pretoria, South Africa
- Department of Animal Production Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Jacques Theron
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Richard Reeve
- Boyd Orr Centre for Population and Ecosystem Health, Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Francois F Maree
- Vaccine and Diagnostic Development Programme, Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Agricultural Research Council, Pretoria, South Africa
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Faculty of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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7
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Omondi GP, Gakuya F, Arzt J, Sangula A, Hartwig E, Pauszek S, Smoliga G, Brito B, Perez A, Obanda V, VanderWaal K. The role of African buffalo in the epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease in sympatric cattle and buffalo populations in Kenya. Transbound Emerg Dis 2020; 67:2206-2221. [PMID: 32303117 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Quantitative knowledge on the contribution of African buffalo to the epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in East Africa is lacking, and this information is essential for the design of control programs in the region. The objective of this study was to investigate the epidemiology of FMDV in buffalo, including the role of buffalo in the circulation of FMDV in livestock populations. We collected blood and oropharyngeal fluids from 92 wild buffalo and 98 sympatric cattle in central Kenya and sequenced the virus' VP1 coding region. We show that FMDV has a high seroprevalence in buffalo (~77%) and targeted cattle (~93%). In addition, we recovered 80 FMDV sequences from buffalo, all of which were serotype SAT1 and SAT2, and four serotype O and A sequences from sympatric cattle. Notably, six individual buffalo were co-infected with both SAT1 and SAT2. Amongst sympatric buffalo and cattle, the fact that no SAT1 or 2 sequences were found in cattle suggests that transmission of FMDV from buffalo to sympatric cattle is rare. Similarly, there was no evidence that serotype O and A sequences found in cattle were transmitted to buffalo. However, viruses from FMDV outbreaks in cattle elsewhere in Kenya were closely related to SAT1 and SAT2 viruses found in buffalo in this study, suggesting that FMDV in cattle and buffalo do not constitute independently evolving populations. We also show that fine-scale geographic features, such as rivers, influence the circulation of FMDV in buffalo and that social segregation amongst sympatric herds may limit between-herd transmission. These results significantly advance our understanding of the ecology and molecular epidemiology of FMDV at wildlife-livestock interfaces in East Africa and will help to inform the design of control and surveillance strategies for this disease in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- George P Omondi
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
- Ahadi Veterinary Resource Center, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Francis Gakuya
- Veterinary Services Department, Kenya Wildlife Service, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Jonathan Arzt
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, ARS, USDA, NY, USA
| | | | - Ethan Hartwig
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, ARS, USDA, NY, USA
| | - Steven Pauszek
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, ARS, USDA, NY, USA
| | - George Smoliga
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, ARS, USDA, NY, USA
| | - Barbara Brito
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, ARS, USDA, NY, USA
| | - Andres Perez
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Vincent Obanda
- Veterinary Services Department, Kenya Wildlife Service, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Kimberly VanderWaal
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
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8
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Alhaji NB, Amin J, Aliyu MB, Mohammad B, Babalobi OO, Wungak Y, Odetokun IA. Economic impact assessment of foot-and-mouth disease burden and control in pastoral local dairy cattle production systems in Northern Nigeria: A cross-sectional survey. Prev Vet Med 2020; 177:104974. [PMID: 32240887 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.104974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Milk has been envisaged as a major source of high-quality protein and bioavailable nutrients to humans. Its production is constraint by foot and mouth disease (FMD), a contagious viral disease of very high economic importance worldwide. This study was aimed at assessing the economic impact of FMD in pastoral dairy cattle herds in Nigeria and determines returns to investments in its control to better inform policy decisions. An interview questionnaire-based cross-sectional study was conducted in 660 nomadic and agro-pastoral dairy cattle herds in 2019. Economic impact analyses were conducted using the total economic cost and benefit-cost analysis models. Of the 660 pastoralists enrolled, 92.6% (n = 611) participated. Nomadic pastoralists constituted 50.7% (n = 310) of the respondents while 49.3% (n = 301) were agro-pastoralists. Most of the respondents (66.4%, n = 406) had no formal education. The value of visible losses to the herders was estimated at USD 15,591,694.30 and the cost of control by treatment of secondary infections was USD 463,673.70. The economic impact of FMD due to production losses and costs of treatment to pastoralists was estimated to be USD 16,055,368.00. Return on investment in FMD control was positive with a benefit-cost ratio of 33.6. The estimated total economic costs due to FMD have indicated that it is a disease of high economic importance to dairy production herds and must be controlled to assure food security, local incomes to herders, and protein requirement of human population, especially the children in FMD endemic countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- N B Alhaji
- Epidemiology Department, Niger State Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, Minna, Nigeria.
| | - J Amin
- Epidemiology Department, Niger State Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, Minna, Nigeria
| | - M B Aliyu
- Epidemiology Department, Niger State Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, Minna, Nigeria
| | - B Mohammad
- Animal Health Unit, Department of Agriculture, Bida Local Government, Bida, Nigeria
| | - O O Babalobi
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
| | - Y Wungak
- FMD Research Laboratory, National Veterinary Research Institute, Vom, Nigeria
| | - I A Odetokun
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
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9
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Guerrini L, Pfukenyi DM, Etter E, Bouyer J, Njagu C, Ndhlovu F, Bourgarel M, de Garine-Wichatitsky M, Foggin C, Grosbois V, Caron A. Spatial and seasonal patterns of FMD primary outbreaks in cattle in Zimbabwe between 1931 and 2016. Vet Res 2019; 50:73. [PMID: 31551078 PMCID: PMC6760110 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-019-0690-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Foot and mouth disease (FMD) is an important livestock disease impacting mainly intensive production systems. In southern Africa, the FMD virus is maintained in wildlife and its control is therefore complicated. However, FMD control is an important task to allow countries access to lucrative foreign meat market and veterinary services implement drastic control measures on livestock populations living in the periphery of protected areas, negatively impacting local small-scale livestock producers. This study investigated FMD primary outbreak data in Zimbabwe from 1931 to 2016 to describe the spatio-temporal distribution of FMD outbreaks and their potential drivers. The results suggest that: (i) FMD outbreaks were not randomly distributed in space across Zimbabwe but are clustered in the Southeast Lowveld (SEL); (ii) the proximity of protected areas with African buffalos was potentially responsible for primary FMD outbreaks in cattle; (iii) rainfall per se was not associated with FMD outbreaks, but seasons impacted the temporal occurrence of FMD outbreaks across regions; (iv) the frequency of FMD outbreaks increased during periods of major socio-economic and political crisis. The differences between the spatial clusters and other areas in Zimbabwe presenting similar buffalo/cattle interfaces but with fewer FMD outbreaks can be interpreted in light of the recent better understanding of wildlife/livestock interactions in these areas. The types of wildlife/livestock interfaces are hypothesized to be the key drivers of contacts between wildlife and livestock, triggering a risk of FMD inter-species spillover. The management of wildlife/livestock interfaces is therefore crucial for the control of FMD in southern Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laure Guerrini
- ASTRE, CIRAD, INRA, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- CIRAD, RP-PCP, UMR ASTRE, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Davies Mubika Pfukenyi
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Eric Etter
- ASTRE, CIRAD, INRA, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- Epidemiology Section, Department of Production Animals Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Jérémy Bouyer
- ASTRE, CIRAD, INRA, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | | | | | - Mathieu Bourgarel
- ASTRE, CIRAD, INRA, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- CIRAD, RP-PCP, UMR ASTRE, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Michel de Garine-Wichatitsky
- ASTRE, CIRAD, INRA, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- CIRAD, RP-PCP, UMR ASTRE, Harare, Zimbabwe
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Chris Foggin
- Victoria Falls Wildlife Trust, P O Box 159, Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe
| | | | - Alexandre Caron
- ASTRE, CIRAD, INRA, Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
- CIRAD, RP-PCP, UMR ASTRE, Harare, Zimbabwe
- Faculdade de Veterinaria, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, Mozambique
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10
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Omondi G, Alkhamis MA, Obanda V, Gakuya F, Sangula A, Pauszek S, Perez A, Ngulu S, van Aardt R, Arzt J, VanderWaal K. Phylogeographical and cross-species transmission dynamics of SAT1 and SAT2 foot-and-mouth disease virus in Eastern Africa. Mol Ecol 2019; 28:2903-2916. [PMID: 31074125 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Revised: 04/28/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the dynamics of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), an endemic and economically constraining disease, is critical in designing control programmes in Africa. This study investigates the evolutionary epidemiology of SAT1 and SAT2 FMDV in Eastern Africa, as well as between cattle and wild African buffalo. Bayesian phylodynamic models were used to analyse SAT1 and SAT2 VP1 gene segments collected between 1975 and 2016, focusing on the SAT1 and SAT2 viruses currently circulating in Eastern Africa. The root state posterior probabilities inferred from our analyses suggest Zimbabwe as the ancestral location for SAT1 currently circulating in Eastern Africa (p = 0.67). For the SAT2 clade, Kenya is inferred to be the ancestral location for introduction of the virus into other countries in Eastern Africa (p = 0.72). Salient (Bayes factor >10) viral dispersal routes were inferred from Tanzania to Kenya, and from Kenya to Uganda for SAT1 and SAT2, respectively. Results suggest that cattle are the source of the SAT1 and SAT2 clades currently circulating in Eastern Africa. In addition, our results suggest that the majority of SAT1 and SAT2 in livestock come from other livestock rather than wildlife, with limited evidence that buffalo serve as reservoirs for cattle. Insights from the present study highlight the role of cattle movements and anthropogenic activities in shaping the evolutionary history of SAT1 and SAT2 in Eastern Africa. While the results may be affected by inherent limitations of imperfect surveillance, our analysis elucidates the dynamics between host species in this region, which is key to guiding disease intervention activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Omondi
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
| | - Moh A Alkhamis
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota.,Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Faculty of Public Health, Health Sciences Center, Kuwait University, Kuwait, Kuwait
| | - Vincent Obanda
- Veterinary Services Department, Kenya Wildlife Service, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Francis Gakuya
- Veterinary Services Department, Kenya Wildlife Service, Nairobi, Kenya
| | | | - Steven Pauszek
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, USDA, Orient Point, New York
| | - Andres Perez
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
| | | | | | - Jonathan Arzt
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, USDA, Orient Point, New York
| | - Kim VanderWaal
- Department of Veterinary Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota
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11
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Roberts LC, Fosgate GT. Stakeholder perceptions of foot-and-mouth disease control in South Africa. Prev Vet Med 2018; 156:38-48. [PMID: 29891144 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2018.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Revised: 03/26/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) prevention and control is a challenge worldwide but the situation in southern Africa is particularly complex because the virus is endemic in wild African buffalo (Syncerus caffer). The objective of this study was to compare stakeholder perceptions of the FMD control methods employed to restrict FMD virus to the infected zone of South Africa. Data collection was performed using an online questionnaire distributed to FMD experts, government veterinarians, private livestock veterinarians, people involved within the wildlife sector, and "other" occupation groups including the general public. Data were also collected using semi-structured participatory group discussions with government animal health technicians (AHT) and communal cattle owners directly affected by FMD control measures. Evaluated control methods were the disease control fence bordering the western boundary of the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Conservation Area, clinical surveillance of livestock, movement control of cloven-hoofed animals and products, and routine FMD vaccination of cattle. These management procedures were scored according to a set of technical, economic, and ethical criteria by stakeholders, who also weighted the criteria according to their perceived importance. Scores and weights were aggregated using an additive linear model to rank control methods. Sensitivity analysis was performed using a stochastic model to explore the effects of varying inputs and the exclusion of scores from randomly selected respondent groups on the ranking of control methods. The deterministic analysis assigned the highest ranking to the disease control fence and the lowest to routine vaccination of cattle. The fence had the highest ranking in 40% of the stochastic iterations, and second, third and fourth in 26%, 20% and 14% of iterations, respectively. The inputs from the AHT and people involved in the wildlife sector were the most influential for ranking the fence as the preferred control option. The most influential criteria were the feasibility of the fence as a control option and its influence on the economics of the communal cattle owners, livestock industry in the FMD free zone, and the government. The disease control fence was the highest ranking control option but further investigations are necessary to understand the reasons for stakeholder perceptions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura C Roberts
- University of Pretoria, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Production Animal Studies, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa; Western Cape Department of Agriculture, Elsenburg, 7607, South Africa
| | - Geoffrey T Fosgate
- University of Pretoria, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Department of Production Animal Studies, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa.
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12
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Knight-Jones TJD, Robinson L, Charleston B, Rodriguez LL, Gay CG, Sumption KJ, Vosloo W. Global Foot-and-Mouth Disease Research Update and Gap Analysis: 2 - Epidemiology, Wildlife and Economics. Transbound Emerg Dis 2016; 63 Suppl 1:14-29. [DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - L. L. Rodriguez
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center; ARS; USDA; Greenport New York USA
| | - C. G. Gay
- Agricultural Research Service; USDA; National Program 103-Animal Health; Beltsville MD USA
| | - K. J. Sumption
- European Commission for the Control of FMD (EuFMD); FAO; Rome Italy
| | - W. Vosloo
- Australian Animal Health Laboratory; CSIRO-Biosecurity Flagship; Geelong Vic Australia
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13
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Knight-Jones TJD, McLaws M, Rushton J. Foot-and-Mouth Disease Impact on Smallholders - What Do We Know, What Don't We Know and How Can We Find Out More? Transbound Emerg Dis 2016; 64:1079-1094. [PMID: 27167976 PMCID: PMC5516236 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Foot‐and‐mouth disease (FMD) endemic regions contain three‐quarters of the world's FMD susceptible livestock and most of the world's poor livestock keepers. Yet FMD impact on smallholders in these regions is poorly understood. Diseases of low mortality can exert a large impact if incidence is high. Modelling and field studies commonly find high FMD incidence in endemic countries. Sero‐surveys typically find a third of young cattle are sero‐positive, however, the proportion of sero‐positive animals that developed disease, and resulting impact, are unknown. The few smallholder FMD impact studies that have been performed assessed different aspects of impact, using different approaches. They find that FMD impact can be high (>10% of annual household income). However, impact is highly variable, being a function of FMD incidence and dependency on activities affected by FMD. FMD restricts investment in productive but less FMD‐resilient farming methods, however, other barriers to efficient production may exist, reducing the benefits of FMD control. Applying control measures is costly and can have wide‐reaching negative impacts; veterinary‐cordon‐fences may damage wildlife populations, and livestock movement restrictions and trade bans damage farmer profits and the wider economy. When control measures are ineffective, farmers, society and wildlife may experience the burden of control without reducing disease burden. Foot‐and‐mouth disease control has benefitted smallholders in South America and elsewhere. Success takes decades of regional cooperation with effective veterinary services and widespread farmer participation. However, both the likelihood of success and the full cost of control measures must be considered. Controlling FMD in smallholder systems is challenging, particularly when movement restrictions are hard to enforce. In parts of Africa this is compounded by endemically infected wildlife and limited vaccine performance. This paper reviews FMD impact on smallholders in endemic countries. Significant evidence gaps exist and guidance on the design of FMD impact studies is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - M McLaws
- European Commission for the Control of FMD, FAO, Rome, Italy
| | - J Rushton
- The Royal Veterinary College (VEEPH), North Mymms, Hertfordshire, UK
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14
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Ludi A, Ahmed Z, Pomeroy LW, Pauszek SJ, Smoliga GR, Moritz M, Dickmu S, Abdoulkadiri S, Arzt J, Garabed R, Rodriguez LL. Serotype Diversity of Foot-and-Mouth-Disease Virus in Livestock without History of Vaccination in the Far North Region of Cameroon. Transbound Emerg Dis 2016; 63:e27-38. [PMID: 24735162 PMCID: PMC4499489 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Little information is available about the natural cycle of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in the absence of control measures such as vaccination. Cameroon presents a unique opportunity for epidemiological studies because FMD vaccination is not practiced. We carried out a prospective study including serological, antigenic and genetic aspects of FMD virus (FMDV) infections among different livestock production systems in the Far North of Cameroon to gain insight into the natural ecology of the virus. We found serological evidence of FMDV infection in over 75% of the animals sampled with no significant differences of prevalence observed among the sampled groups (i.e. market, sedentary, transboundary trade and mobile). We also found antibodies reactive to five of the seven FMDV serotypes (A, O, SAT1, SAT2 and SAT3) among the animals sampled. Finally, we were able to genetically characterize viruses obtained from clinical and subclinical FMD infections in Cameroon. Serotype O viruses grouped into two topotypes (West and East Africa). SAT2 viruses grouped with viruses from Central and Northern Africa, notably within the sublineage causing the large epidemic in Northern Africa in 2012, suggesting a common origin for these viruses. This research will guide future interventions for the control of FMD such as improved diagnostics, guidance for vaccine formulation and epidemiological understanding in support of the progressive control of FMD in Cameroon.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Ludi
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY, USA
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Plum Island Animal Disease Center Research Participation Program, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - Z. Ahmed
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY, USA
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Plum Island Animal Disease Center Research Participation Program, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
| | - L. W. Pomeroy
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - S. J. Pauszek
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY, USA
| | - G. R. Smoliga
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY, USA
| | - M. Moritz
- Department of Anthropology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - S. Dickmu
- Laboratoire National Veterinaire, Lanavet, Garoua, Cameroon
| | | | - J. Arzt
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY, USA
| | - R. Garabed
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
- Public Health Preparedness for Infectious Disease Program, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - L. L. Rodriguez
- Foreign Animal Disease Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Greenport, NY, USA
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15
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Di Nardo A, Libeau G, Chardonnet B, Chardonnet P, Kock RA, Parekh K, Hamblin P, Li Y, Parida S, Sumption KJ. Serological profile of foot-and-mouth disease in wildlife populations of West and Central Africa with special reference to Syncerus caffer subspecies. Vet Res 2015; 46:77. [PMID: 26156024 PMCID: PMC4495843 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-015-0213-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Accepted: 06/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The role which West and Central African wildlife populations might play in the transmission dynamics of FMD is not known nor have studies been performed in order to assess the distribution and prevalence of FMD in wild animal species inhabiting those specific regions of Africa. This study reports the FMD serological profile extracted from samples (n = 696) collected from wildlife of West and Central Africa between 1999 and 2003. An overall prevalence of FMDV NSP reactive sera of 31.0% (216/696) was estimated, where a significant difference in seropositivity (p = 0.000) was reported for buffalo (64.8%) as opposed to other wild animal species tested (17.8%). Different levels of exposure to the FMDV resulted for each of the buffalo subspecies sampled (p = 0.031): 68.4%, 50.0% and 0% for Nile Buffalo, West African Buffalo and African Forest Buffalo, respectively. The characterisation of the FMDV serotypes tested for buffalo found presence of antibodies against all the six FMDV serotypes tested, although high estimates for type O and SAT 3 were reported for Central Africa. Different patterns of reaction to the six FMDV serotypes tested were recorded, from sera only positive for a single serotype to multiple reactivities. The results confirmed that FMDV circulates in wild ruminants populating both West and Central Africa rangelands and in particular in buffalo, also suggesting that multiple FMDV serotypes might be involved with type O, SAT 2 and SAT 1 being dominant. Differences in serotype and spill-over risk between wildlife and livestock likely reflect regional geography, historical circulation and differing trade and livestock systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonello Di Nardo
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom. .,The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Surrey, Woking, United Kingdom.
| | - Geneviève Libeau
- Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), UMR Contrôle des Maladies, Campus International de Baillarguet, Montpellier, France.
| | | | - Philippe Chardonnet
- International Foundation for the Conservation of Wildlife (IGF), Paris, France.
| | - Richard A Kock
- Royal Veterinary College (RVC), Hatfield, United Kingdom.
| | - Krupali Parekh
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Surrey, Woking, United Kingdom.
| | - Pip Hamblin
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Surrey, Woking, United Kingdom.
| | - Yanmin Li
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Surrey, Woking, United Kingdom. .,Present address: Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH, Shanghai, China.
| | - Satya Parida
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Surrey, Woking, United Kingdom.
| | - Keith J Sumption
- European Commission for the Control of Foot-and-Mouth Disease (EuFMD), Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy.
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16
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Maree FF, Nsamba P, Mutowembwa P, Rotherham LS, Esterhuysen J, Scott K. Intra-serotype SAT2 chimeric foot-and-mouth disease vaccine protects cattle against FMDV challenge. Vaccine 2015; 33:2909-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.04.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2014] [Revised: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 04/15/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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17
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Maree FF, Kasanga CJ, Scott KA, Opperman PA, Melanie C, Sangula AK, Raphael S, Yona S, Wambura PN, King DP, Paton DJ, Rweyemamu MM. Challenges and prospects for the control of foot-and-mouth disease: an African perspective. VETERINARY MEDICINE-RESEARCH AND REPORTS 2014; 5:119-138. [PMID: 32670853 PMCID: PMC7337166 DOI: 10.2147/vmrr.s62607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2014] [Accepted: 04/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The epidemiology of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) in Africa is unique in the sense that six of the seven serotypes of FMD viruses (Southern African Territories [SAT] 1, SAT2, SAT3, A, O, and C), with the exception of Asia-1, have occurred in the last decade. Due to underreporting of FMD, the current strains circulating throughout sub-Saharan Africa are in many cases unknown. For SAT1, SAT2, and serotype A viruses, the genetic diversity is reflected in antigenic variation, and indications are that vaccine strains may be needed for each topotype. This has serious implications for control using vaccines and for choice of strains to include in regional antigen banks. The epidemiology is further complicated by the fact that SAT1, SAT2, and SAT3 viruses are maintained and spread by wildlife, persistently infecting African buffalo in particular. Although the precise mechanism of transmission of FMD from buffalo to cattle is not well understood, it is facilitated by direct contact between these two species. Once cattle are infected they may maintain SAT infections without the further involvement of buffalo. No single strategy for control of FMD in Africa is applicable. Decision on the most effective regional control strategy should focus on an ecosystem approach, identification of primary endemic areas, animal husbandry practices, climate, and animal movement. Within each ecosystem, human behavior could be integrated in disease control planning. Different regions in sub-Saharan Africa are at different developmental stages and are thus facing unique challenges and priorities in terms of veterinary disease control. Many science-based options targeting improved vaccinology, diagnostics, and other control measures have been described. This review therefore aims to emphasize, on one hand, the progress that has been achieved in the development of new technologies, including research towards improved tailored vaccines, appropriate vaccine strain selection, vaccine potency, and diagnostics, and how it relates to the conditions in Africa. On the other hand, we focus on the unique epidemiological, ecological, livestock farming and marketing, socioeconomic, and governance issues that constrain effective FMD control. Any such new technologies should have the availability of safe livestock products for trade as the ultimate goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francois F Maree
- Transboundary Animal Diseases Programme, Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Agricultural Research Council, Onderstepoort, Pretoria, South Africa.,Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Christopher J Kasanga
- Southern African Centre for Infectious Diseases Surveillance, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Katherine A Scott
- Transboundary Animal Diseases Programme, Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Agricultural Research Council, Onderstepoort, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Pamela A Opperman
- Transboundary Animal Diseases Programme, Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Agricultural Research Council, Onderstepoort, Pretoria, South Africa.,Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Chitray Melanie
- Transboundary Animal Diseases Programme, Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Agricultural Research Council, Onderstepoort, Pretoria, South Africa.,Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, Faculty of Agricultural and Natural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | | | - Sallu Raphael
- Southern African Centre for Infectious Diseases Surveillance, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Sinkala Yona
- Department of Disease Control, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
| | - Philemon N Wambura
- Southern African Centre for Infectious Diseases Surveillance, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | | | | | - Mark M Rweyemamu
- Southern African Centre for Infectious Diseases Surveillance, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
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