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Böning P, Lötters S, Barzaghi B, Bock M, Bok B, Bonato L, Ficetola GF, Glaser F, Griese J, Grabher M, Leroux C, Munimanda G, Manenti R, Ludwig G, Preininger D, Rödel MO, Seibold S, Smith S, Tiemann L, Thein J, Veith M, Plewnia A. Alpine salamanders at risk? The current status of an emerging fungal pathogen. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0298591. [PMID: 38758948 PMCID: PMC11101120 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0298591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Amphibians globally suffer from emerging infectious diseases like chytridiomycosis caused by the continuously spreading chytrid fungi. One is Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) and its disease ‒ the 'salamander plague' ‒ which is lethal to several caudate taxa. Recently introduced into Western Europe, long distance dispersal of Bsal, likely through human mediation, has been reported. Herein we study if Alpine salamanders (Salamandra atra and S. lanzai) are yet affected by the salamander plague in the wild. Members of the genus Salamandra are highly susceptible to Bsal leading to the lethal disease. Moreover, ecological modelling has shown that the Alps and Dinarides, where Alpine salamanders occur, are generally suitable for Bsal. We analysed skin swabs of 818 individuals of Alpine salamanders and syntopic amphibians at 40 sites between 2017 to 2022. Further, we compiled those with published data from 319 individuals from 13 sites concluding that Bsal infections were not detected. Our results suggest that the salamander plague so far is absent from the geographic ranges of Alpine salamanders. That means that there is still a chance to timely implement surveillance strategies. Among others, we recommend prevention measures, citizen science approaches, and ex situ conservation breeding of endemic salamandrid lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Böning
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Stefan Lötters
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Benedetta Barzaghi
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Marvin Bock
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Bobby Bok
- St. Michael College, Zaandam, Netherlands
| | - Lucio Bonato
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- National Biodiversity Future Center, Palermo, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | - Camille Leroux
- Centre d’Ecologie et des Sciences de la Conservation (CESCO), Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- Auddicé Biodiversité–ZAC du Chevalement, Roost-Warendin, France
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | - Gopikrishna Munimanda
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Raoul Manenti
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | | | | | - Mark-Oliver Rödel
- Museum für Naturkunde–Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sebastian Seibold
- Forest Zoology, Technische Universität Dresden, Tharandt, Germany
- Berchtesgaden National Park, Berchtesgaden, Germany
- Ecosystem Dynamics and Forest Management, Technical University of Munich, Freising, Germany
| | - Steve Smith
- Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Laura Tiemann
- Department of Neurology, TUM School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Jürgen Thein
- Büro für Faunistik und Umweltbildung, Haßfurt, Germany
| | - Michael Veith
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany
| | - Amadeus Plewnia
- Department of Biogeography, Trier University, Trier, Germany
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2
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Lambertini C, Ernetti JR, Missassi AFR, Jorge RF, da Silva Leite D, Lima AP, Toledo LF. Chytrid fungus in amphibians from the lowland Brazilian Amazon. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2022; 152:115-125. [PMID: 36519683 DOI: 10.3354/dao03709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Infectious diseases are one of the main threats to biodiversity. The fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) is associated with several amphibian losses around the globe, and environmental conditions may dictate the success of pathogen spread. The Brazilian Amazon has been considered climatically unsuitable for chytrid fungus, but additional information on Bd dynamics in this ecoregion is still lacking. We sampled 462 amphibians (449 anurans, 4 caudatans and 9 caecilians), representing 57 species from the Brazilian Amazon, and quantified Bd infections using qPCR. We tested whether abiotic variables predicted the risk of Bd infections, and tested for relationships between biotic variables and Bd. Finally, we experimentally tested the effects of Bd strains CLFT 156 and CLFT 102 (from the southern and northern Atlantic Forest, respectively) on Atelopus manauensis. We detected higher Bd prevalence than those previously reported for the Brazilian Amazon, and positive individuals in all 3 orders of amphibians sampled. Both biotic and abiotic predictors were related to prevalence, and no variable explained infection load. Moreover, we detected higher Bd prevalence in forested than open areas, while the host's reproductive biology was not a factor. We detected higher mortality in the experimental group infected with CLFT 156, probably because this strain was isolated from a region characterized by discrepant climatic conditions (latitudinally more distant) when compared with the host's sampling site in Amazon. The lowland Brazilian Amazon is still underexplored and future studies targeting all amphibian orders are essential to better understand Bd infection dynamics in this region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Lambertini
- Laboratório de História Natural de Anfíbios Brasileiros (LaHNAB), Departamento de Biologia Animal, Instituto de Biologia, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo 13083-862, Brazil
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3
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Castro Monzon F, Rödel MO, Ruland F, Parra-Olea G, Jeschke JM. Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans' Amphibian Host Species and Invasion Range. ECOHEALTH 2022; 19:475-486. [PMID: 36611108 PMCID: PMC9898388 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-022-01620-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal), a species related to the destructive pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), was found and identified in Europe in 2013. Now, a decade later, a large amount of information is available. This includes data from studies in the field, reports of infection in captive amphibians, laboratory studies testing host susceptibility, and data from prospective studies that test for Bsal's presence in a location. We conducted a systematic review of the published literature and compiled a dataset of Bsal tests. We identified 67 species that have been reported positive for Bsal, 20 of which have a threatened conservation status. The distribution of species that have been found with infection encompasses 69 countries, highlighting the potential threat that Bsal poses. We point out where surveillance to detect Bsal have taken place and highlight areas that have not been well monitored. The large number of host species belonging to the families Plethodontidae and Salamandridae suggests a taxonomic pattern of susceptibility. Our results provide insight into the risk posed by Bsal and identifies vulnerable species and areas where surveillance is needed to fill existing knowledge gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Castro Monzon
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Str. 1-3, 14195, Berlin, Germany.
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587, Berlin, Germany.
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, Altensteinstr. 34, 14195, Berlin, Germany.
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Biology, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, AP 70-153, 04510, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Mark-Oliver Rödel
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, Altensteinstr. 34, 14195, Berlin, Germany
- Museum für Naturkunde-Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science, Invalidenstr. 43, 10115, Berlin, Germany
| | - Florian Ruland
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Str. 1-3, 14195, Berlin, Germany
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587, Berlin, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, Altensteinstr. 34, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gabriela Parra-Olea
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Biology, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, AP 70-153, 04510, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Jonathan M Jeschke
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Str. 1-3, 14195, Berlin, Germany
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587, Berlin, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, Altensteinstr. 34, 14195, Berlin, Germany
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4
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Womack MC, Steigerwald E, Blackburn DC, Cannatella DC, Catenazzi A, Che J, Koo MS, McGuire JA, Ron SR, Spencer CL, Vredenburg VT, Tarvin RD. State of the Amphibia 2020: A Review of Five Years of Amphibian Research and Existing Resources. ICHTHYOLOGY & HERPETOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1643/h2022005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Molly C. Womack
- Department of Biology, Utah State University, Logan, Utah 84322; . ORCID: 0000-0002-3346-021X
| | - Emma Steigerwald
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720; (ES) ; (MSK) ; (JAM) ; (CS) ; (VTV) ; and (RDT)
| | - David C. Blackburn
- Department of Natural History, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611; . ORCID: 0000-0002-1810-9886
| | - David C. Cannatella
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712; . ORCID: 0000-0001-8675-0520
| | | | - Jing Che
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Resources and Evolution & Yunnan Key Laboratory of Biodiversity and Ecological Security of Gaoligong Mountain, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, China; . ORCID: 0000-0003-4246-6
| | - Michelle S. Koo
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720; (ES) ; (MSK) ; (JAM) ; (CS) ; (VTV) ; and (RDT)
| | - Jimmy A. McGuire
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720; (ES) ; (MSK) ; (JAM) ; (CS) ; (VTV) ; and (RDT)
| | - Santiago R. Ron
- Museo de Zoología, Escuela de Biología, Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador; . ORCID: 0000-0001-6300-9350
| | - Carol L. Spencer
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720; (ES) ; (MSK) ; (JAM) ; (CS) ; (VTV) ; and (RDT)
| | - Vance T. Vredenburg
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720; (ES) ; (MSK) ; (JAM) ; (CS) ; (VTV) ; and (RDT)
| | - Rebecca D. Tarvin
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720; (ES) ; (MSK) ; (JAM) ; (CS) ; (VTV) ; and (RDT)
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5
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Basanta MD, Avila-Akerberg V, Byrne AQ, Castellanos-Morales G, González Martínez TM, Maldonado-López Y, Rosenblum EB, Suazo-Ortuño I, Parra Olea G, Rebollar EA. The fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans is not detected in wild and captive amphibians from Mexico. PeerJ 2022; 10:e14117. [PMID: 36213512 PMCID: PMC9536319 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.14117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The recent emergence of the pathogen Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) is associated with rapid population declines of salamanders in Europe and its arrival to new areas could cause dramatic negative effects on other amphibian populations and species. Amphibian species, present in areas with high amphibian diversity such as Mexico, could be highly threatened due to the arrival of Bsal, particularly salamander species which are more vulnerable to chytridiomycosis caused by this pathogen. Thus, immediate surveillance is needed as a strategy to efficiently contend with this emerging infectious disease. In this study, we analyzed 490 wild and captive amphibians from 48 species across 76 sites in the North, Central, and South of Mexico to evaluate the presence of Bsal. Amphibians were sampled in sites with variable degrees of amphibian richness and suitability for Bsal according to previous studies. From the 76 sampling sites, 10 of them were located in areas with high amphibian richness and potential moderate to high Bsal habitat suitability. We did not detect Bsal in any of the samples, and no signs of the disease were observed in any individual at the time of sampling. Our results suggest that Bsal has not yet arrived at the sampled sites or could be at low prevalence within populations with low occurrence probability. This is the first study that evaluates the presence of Bsal in different regions and amphibian species in Mexico, which is the second most diverse country in salamander species in the world. We highlight the risk and the importance of continuing surveillance of Bsal in Mexico and discuss control strategies to avoid the introduction and spread of Bsal in the country.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Delia Basanta
- Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico,Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Coyoacán, Ciudad de México, Mexico,Department of Biology, University of Nevada Reno, Reno, Nevada, United States of America
| | - Victor Avila-Akerberg
- Instituto de Ciencias Agropecuarias y Rurales, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Toluca, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - Allison Q. Byrne
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States of America
| | - Gabriela Castellanos-Morales
- Departamento de Conservación de la Biodiversidad, Colegio de la Frontera Sur Unidad, Villahermosa, Tabasco, México
| | | | - Yurixhi Maldonado-López
- CONACYT-Instituto de Investigaciones sobre los Recursos Naturales, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico
| | - Erica Bree Rosenblum
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA, United States of America
| | - Ireri Suazo-Ortuño
- Instituto de Investigaciones sobre los Recursos Naturales, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico
| | - Gabriela Parra Olea
- Instituto de Biología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Eria A. Rebollar
- Centro de Ciencias Genómicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico
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6
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García‐Rodríguez A, Basanta MD, García‐Castillo MG, Zumbado‐Ulate H, Neam K, Rovito S, Searle CL, Parra‐Olea G. Anticipating the potential impacts of
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans
on Neotropical salamander diversity. Biotropica 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/btp.13042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Adrián García‐Rodríguez
- Departamento de Zoología Instituto de Biología Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Ciudad de México México
- BioInvasions, Global Change, Macroecology‐Group Department of Botany and Biodiversity Research University of Vienna Vienna Austria
| | - M. Delia Basanta
- Departamento de Zoología Instituto de Biología Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Ciudad de México México
- Centro de Ciencias Genómicas Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Cuernavaca Morelos México
| | - Mirna G. García‐Castillo
- Universidad Politécnica de Huatusco Huatusco Veracruz México
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias Región: Orizaba–Córdoba Universidad Veracruzana Amatlán de los Reyes Veracruz México
| | | | - Kelsey Neam
- Global Wildlife Conservation Austin Texas USA
- Amphibian Specialist Group IUCN Species Survival Commission USA
| | - Sean Rovito
- Unidad de Genómica Avanzada (Langebio) CINVESTAV Irapuato México
| | - Catherine L. Searle
- Department of Biological Sciences Purdue University West Lafayette Indiana USA
| | - Gabriela Parra‐Olea
- Departamento de Zoología Instituto de Biología Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México Ciudad de México México
- Amphibian Specialist Group IUCN Species Survival Commission USA
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7
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ABSENCE OF BATRACHOCHYTRIUM SALAMANDRIVORANS IN A GLOBAL HOTSPOT FOR SALAMANDER BIODIVERSITY. J Wildl Dis 2021; 57:553-560. [PMID: 33984856 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-20-00218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) is an emerging fungal pathogen that affects salamander and newt populations in Asia and Europe. In the Western Hemisphere, Bsal represents a major threat to endemic amphibian populations, which have not evolved resistance to infection, and which could experience local extinction events such as those observed in European fire salamanders (Salamandra salamandra). We report findings of a survey focusing specifically on wild lungless salamanders in the southeastern US, the most biodiverse location for salamander species globally. Between May 2016 and July 2018, we conducted 25 surveys at 10 sites across three ecoregions in Tennessee, US. Using quantitative (q)PCR, we screened water samples and skin swabs from 137 salamanders in five plethodontid genera. Although single replicates of six samples amplified during qPCR cycling, no samples could be confirmed as positive for the presence of Bsal with 28S rRNA PCR and independent laboratory screening. It is probable that we found false positive results, as reported by other researchers using the same assay. We offer recommendations for future monitoring efforts.
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8
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Plethodontid salamanders show variable disease dynamics in response to Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans chytridiomycosis. Biol Invasions 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-021-02536-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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9
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Pereira KE, Woodley SK. Skin defenses of North American salamanders against a deadly salamander fungus. Anim Conserv 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- K. E. Pereira
- Department of Biological Sciences Duquesne University Pittsburgh PA USA
| | - S. K. Woodley
- Department of Biological Sciences Duquesne University Pittsburgh PA USA
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10
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Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) not detected in an intensive survey of wild North American amphibians. Sci Rep 2020; 10:13012. [PMID: 32747670 PMCID: PMC7400573 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-69486-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The salamander chytrid fungus (Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans [Bsal]) is causing massive mortality of salamanders in Europe. The potential for spread via international trade into North America and the high diversity of salamanders has catalyzed concern about Bsal in the U.S. Surveillance programs for invading pathogens must initially meet challenges that include low rates of occurrence on the landscape, low prevalence at a site, and imperfect detection of the diagnostic tests. We implemented a large-scale survey to determine if Bsal was present in North America designed to target taxa and localities where Bsal was determined highest risk to be present based on species susceptibility and geography. Our analysis included a Bayesian model to estimate the probability of occurrence of Bsal given our prior knowledge of the occurrence and prevalence of the pathogen. We failed to detect Bsal in any of 11,189 samples from 594 sites in 223 counties within 35 U.S. states and one site in Mexico. Our modeling indicates that Bsal is highly unlikely to occur within wild amphibians in the U.S. and suggests that the best proactive response is to continue mitigation efforts against the introduction and establishment of the disease and to develop plans to reduce impacts should Bsal establish.
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11
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Brunner JL. Pooled samples and eDNA-based detection can facilitate the "clean trade" of aquatic animals. Sci Rep 2020; 10:10280. [PMID: 32581260 PMCID: PMC7314758 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-66280-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The regional and international trade of live animals facilitates the movement, spillover, and emergence of zoonotic and epizootic pathogens around the world. Detecting pathogens in trade is critical for preventing their continued movement and introduction, but screening a sufficient fraction to ensure rare infections are detected is simply infeasible for many taxa and settings because of the vast numbers of animals involved—hundreds of millions of live animals are imported into the U.S.A. alone every year. Batch processing pools of individual samples or using environmental DNA (eDNA)—the genetic material shed into an organism’s environment—collected from whole consignments of animals may substantially reduce the time and cost associated with pathogen surveillance. Both approaches, however, lack a framework with which to determine sampling requirements and interpret results. Here I present formulae for pooled individual samples (e.g,. swabs) and eDNA samples collected from finite populations and discuss key assumptions and considerations for their use with a focus on detecting Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans, an emerging pathogen that threatens global salamander diversity. While empirical validation is key, these formulae illustrate the potential for eDNA-based detection in particular to reduce sample sizes and help bring clean trade into reach for a greater number of taxa, places, and contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse L Brunner
- Washington State University, School of Biological Sciences, Pullman, WA, 99164, USA.
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12
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Rollins-Smith LA. Global Amphibian Declines, Disease, and the Ongoing Battle between Batrachochytrium Fungi and the Immune System. HERPETOLOGICA 2020. [DOI: 10.1655/0018-0831-76.2.178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Louise A. Rollins-Smith
- Departments of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology and Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, USA Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235, USA
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13
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Hernández-Martínez LÁ, Romero-Méndez U, González-Barrios JL, García-De la Peña MC, Amézquita-Torres A. Nuevos registros y prevalencia de Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis en anuros de la cuenca Nazas-Aguanaval en la región norte-centro de México. REV MEX BIODIVERS 2019. [DOI: 10.22201/ib.20078706e.2019.90.2934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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14
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Fitzpatrick LD, Pasmans F, Martel A, Cunningham AA. Epidemiological tracing of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans identifies widespread infection and associated mortalities in private amphibian collections. Sci Rep 2018; 8:13845. [PMID: 30218076 PMCID: PMC6138723 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-31800-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The amphibian chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) infects newts and salamanders (urodele amphibians), in which it can cause fatal disease. This pathogen has caused dramatic fire salamander population declines in Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany since its discovery in 2010. Thought to be native to Asia, it has been hypothesised that Bsal was introduced to Europe with the importation of infected amphibians for the commercial pet trade. Following the discovery of Bsal in captive amphibians in the United Kingdom in 2015, we used contact-tracing to identify epidemiologically-linked private amphibian collections in Western Europe. Of 16 linked collections identified, animals were tested from 11 and urodeles tested positive for Bsal in seven, including the identification of the pathogen in Spain for the first time. Mortality of Bsal-positive individuals was observed in five collections. Our results indicate that Bsal is likely widespread within the private amphibian trade, at least in Europe. These findings are important for informing policy regarding Bsal control strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liam D Fitzpatrick
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London, NW1 4RY, UK
| | - Frank Pasmans
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - An Martel
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Andrew A Cunningham
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London, NW1 4RY, UK.
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15
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More S, Angel Miranda M, Bicout D, Bøtner A, Butterworth A, Calistri P, Depner K, Edwards S, Garin-Bastuji B, Good M, Michel V, Raj M, Saxmose Nielsen S, Sihvonen L, Spoolder H, Stegeman JA, Thulke HH, Velarde A, Willeberg P, Winckler C, Baláž V, Martel A, Murray K, Fabris C, Munoz-Gajardo I, Gogin A, Verdonck F, Gortázar Schmidt C. Risk of survival, establishment and spread of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) in the EU. EFSA J 2018; 16:e05259. [PMID: 32625888 PMCID: PMC7009437 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) is an emerging fungal pathogen of salamanders. Despite limited surveillance, Bsal was detected in kept salamanders populations in Belgium, Germany, Spain, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, and in wild populations in some regions of Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands. According to niche modelling, at least part of the distribution range of every salamander species in Europe overlaps with the climate conditions predicted to be suitable for Bsal. Passive surveillance is considered the most suitable approach for detection of Bsal emergence in wild populations. Demonstration of Bsal absence is considered feasible only in closed populations of kept susceptible species. In the wild, Bsal can spread by both active (e.g. salamanders, anurans) and passive (e.g. birds, water) carriers; it is most likely maintained/spread in infected areas by contacts of salamanders or by interactions with anurans, whereas human activities most likely cause Bsal entry into new areas and populations. In kept amphibians, Bsal contamination via live silent carriers (wild birds and anurans) is considered extremely unlikely. The risk-mitigation measures that were considered the most feasible and effective: (i) for ensuring safer international or intra-EU trade of live salamanders, are: ban or restrictions on salamander imports, hygiene procedures and good practice manuals; (ii) for protecting kept salamanders from Bsal, are: identification and treatment of positive collections; (iii) for on-site protection of wild salamanders, are: preventing translocation of wild amphibians and release/return to the wild of kept/temporarily housed wild salamanders, and setting up contact points/emergency teams for passive surveillance. Combining several risk-mitigation measures improve the overall effectiveness. It is recommended to: introduce a harmonised protocol for Bsal detection throughout the EU; improve data acquisition on salamander abundance and distribution; enhance passive surveillance activities; increase public and professionals' awareness; condition any movement of captive salamanders on Bsal known health status.
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Comparison of model selection technique performance in predicting the spread of newly invasive species: a case study with Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans. Biol Invasions 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10530-018-1690-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Yap TA, Nguyen NT, Serr M, Shepack A, Vredenburg VT. Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans and the Risk of a Second Amphibian Pandemic. ECOHEALTH 2017; 14:851-864. [PMID: 29147975 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-017-1278-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2017] [Revised: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Amphibians are experiencing devastating population declines globally. A major driver is chytridiomycosis, an emerging infectious disease caused by the fungal pathogens Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal). Bd was described in 1999 and has been linked with declines since the 1970s, while Bsal is a more recently discovered pathogen that was described in 2013. It is hypothesized that Bsal originated in Asia and spread via international trade to Europe, where it has been linked to salamander die-offs. Trade in live amphibians thus represents a significant threat to global biodiversity in amphibians. We review the current state of knowledge regarding Bsal and describe the risk of Bsal spread. We discuss regional responses to Bsal and barriers that impede a rapid, coordinated global effort. The discovery of a second deadly emerging chytrid fungal pathogen in amphibians poses an opportunity for scientists, conservationists, and governments to improve global biosecurity and further protect humans and wildlife from a growing number of emerging infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany A Yap
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, Hensill Hall, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94132, USA.
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California Berkeley, 3101 Valley Life Sciences Building, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA.
| | - Natalie T Nguyen
- U.S. Geological Survey National Wildlife Health Center, 6006 Schroeder Rd., Madison, WI, 53711, USA
| | - Megan Serr
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Thomas Hall, 1100 Brooks Avenue, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA
| | - Alexander Shepack
- Zoology Department, Southern Illinois University Carbondale, 1125 Lincoln Drive, Carbondale, IL, 62901, USA
| | - Vance T Vredenburg
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, Hensill Hall, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94132, USA
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California Berkeley, 3101 Valley Life Sciences Building, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
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Klocke B, Becker M, Lewis J, Fleischer RC, Muletz-Wolz CR, Rockwood L, Aguirre AA, Gratwicke B. Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans not detected in U.S. survey of pet salamanders. Sci Rep 2017; 7:13132. [PMID: 29030586 PMCID: PMC5640657 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-13500-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
We engaged pet salamander owners in the United States to screen their animals for two amphibian chytrid fungal pathogens Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and B. salamandrivorans (Bsal). We provided pet owners with a sampling kit and instructional video to swab the skin of their animals. We received 639 salamander samples from 65 species by mail, and tested them for Bd and Bsal using qPCR. We detected Bd on 1.3% of salamanders (95% CI 0.0053–0.0267) and did not detect Bsal (95% CI 0.0000–0.0071). If Bsal is present in the U.S. population of pet salamanders, it occurs at a very low prevalence. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service listed 201 species of salamanders as “injurious wildlife” under the Lacey Act (18 U.S.C. § 42) on January 28, 2016, a precautionary action to prevent the introduction of Bsal to the U.S. through the importation of salamanders. This action reduced the number of salamanders imported to the U.S. from 2015 to 2016 by 98.4%. Our results indicate that continued precautions should be taken to prevent the introduction and establishment of Bsal in the U.S., which is a hotspot of salamander biodiversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Blake Klocke
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, 22030, United States of America. .,Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Washington, DC, 20008, United States of America. .,Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Washington, DC, 20008, United States of America.
| | - Matthew Becker
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Washington, DC, 20008, United States of America.,Department of Biology and Chemistry, Liberty University, Lynchburg, Virginia, 24515, United States of America
| | - James Lewis
- Rainforest Trust, Warrenton, VA, 20187, United States of America
| | - Robert C Fleischer
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Washington, DC, 20008, United States of America
| | - Carly R Muletz-Wolz
- Center for Conservation Genomics, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Washington, DC, 20008, United States of America
| | - Larry Rockwood
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, 22030, United States of America.,Department of Biology, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, 22030, United States of America
| | - A Alonso Aguirre
- Department of Environmental Science and Policy, George Mason University, Fairfax, Virginia, 22030, United States of America
| | - Brian Gratwicke
- Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Washington, DC, 20008, United States of America
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Balàž V, Gortázar Schmidt C, Murray K, Carnesecchi E, Garcia A, Gervelmeyer A, Martino L, Munoz Guajardo I, Verdonck F, Zancanaro G, Fabris C. Scientific and technical assistance concerning the survival, establishment and spread of Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) in the EU. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04739. [PMID: 32625419 PMCID: PMC7010177 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
A new fungus, Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal), was identified in wild populations of salamanders in the Netherlands and Belgium, and in kept salamander populations in Germany and the United Kingdom. EFSA assessed the potential of Bsal to affect the health of wild and kept salamanders in the EU, the effectiveness and feasibility of a movement ban of traded salamanders, the validity, reliability and robustness of available diagnostic methods for Bsal detection, and possible alternative methods and feasible risk mitigation measures to ensure safe international and EU trade of salamanders and their products. Bsal was isolated and characterised in 2013 from a declining fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) population in the Netherlands. Based on the available evidence, it is likely that Bsal is a sufficient cause for the death of S. salamandra both in the laboratory and in the wild. Despite small sample sizes, the available experimental evidence indicates that Bsal is associated with disease and death in individuals of 12 European and 3 Asian salamander species, and with high mortality rate outbreaks in kept salamanders. Bsal experimental infection was detected in individuals of at least one species pertaining to the families Salamandridae, Plethodontidae, Hynobiidae and Sirenidae. Movement bans constitute key risk mitigation measures to prevent pathogen spread into naïve areas and populations. The effectiveness of a movement ban is mainly dependent on the import volumes, possibility of Bsal to remain viable outside susceptible/tolerant species, and the capacity to limit illegal movements. Duplex real-time PCR can be used to detect Bsal DNA, but has not been fully validated. Quarantining salamanders, enacting legislation that requires testing of animals to demonstrate freedom from Bsal, before movement can take place, restricting salamander movements, tracking all traded species, hygienic procedures/biosecurity measures before and during movements, and increasing public awareness are relevant measures for ensuring safe intra-EU and international trade of salamanders.
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