Cortical and Trabecular Bone Fracture Characterisation in the Vertebral Body Using Acoustic Emission

Acoustic Emission in Bone Biomechanics: A Comprehensive Review of Mechanical Properties and Predictive Damage Modeling

This review investigates the application of acoustic emission (AE) techniques in analyzing the mechanical properties and damage prediction of human bone. AE is a non-invasive and non-destructive evaluation method that captures the elastic waves released during microstructural deformations under stress, providing critical insights into bone behavior and failure mechanisms. By analyzing 57 studies, this review synthesizes findings on AE signal characteristics, experimental configurations, and their correlations with bone's mechanical parameters such as yield strength, elastic modulus, and micro-damage evolution. This article highlights AE's potential in early damage detection, differentiation of failure modes, and predictive modeling using stochastic and percolation theories. These models facilitate the prediction of fracture risk and mechanical failure without inducing irreversible damage. This review addresses the strengths and limitations of AE techniques and outlines future directions in biomechanical research.

Specimen-specific fracture risk curves of lumbar vertebrae under dynamic axial compression

Underbody blast attacks of military vehicles by improvised explosives have resulted in high incidence of lumbar spine fractures below the thorocolumbar junction in military combatants. Fracture risk curves related to vertical loading at individual lumbar spinal levels can be used to assess the protective ability of new injury mitigation equipment. The objectives of this study were to derive fracture risk curves for the lumbar spine under high rate compression and identify how specimen-specific attributes and lumbar spinal level may influence fracture risk. In this study, we tested a sample of three-vertebra specimens encompassing all spinal levels between T12 to S1 in high-rate axial compression. Each specimen was tested with a non-injurious load, followed by a compressive force sufficient to induce vertebral body fracture. During testing, bone fracture was identified using measurements from acoustic emission sensors and changes in load cell readings. Following testing, the fractures were assessed using computed tomographic (CT) imaging. The CT images showed isolated fractures of trabecular bone, or fractures involving both cortical and trabecular bone. Results from the compressive force measurements in conjunction with a survival analysis demonstrated that the compressive force corresponding to fracture increased inferiorly as a function of lumbar spinal level. The axial rigidity (EA) measured at the mid-plane of the centre vertebra or the volumetric bone mineral density (vBMD) of the vertebral body trabecular bone most greatly influenced fracture risk. By including these covariates in the fracture risk curves, no other variables significantly affected fracture risk, including the lumbar spinal level. The fracture risk curves presented in this study may be used to assess the risk of injury at individual lumbar vertebra when exposed to dynamic axial compression.

Occlusion of the lumbar spine canal during high-rate axial compression

BACKGROUND CONTEXT

While burst fracture is a well-known cause of spinal canal occlusion with dynamic, axial spinal compression, it is unclear how such loading mechanisms might cause occlusion without fracture.

PURPOSE

To determine how spinal canal occlusion during dynamic compression of the lumbar spine is differentially caused by fracture or mechanisms without fracture and to examine the influence of spinal level on occlusion.

STUDY DESIGN

A cadaveric biomechanical study.

METHODS

Twenty sets of three-vertebrae specimens from all spinal levels between T12 and S1 were subjected to dynamic compression using a hydraulic loading apparatus up to a peak velocity between 0.1 and 0.9 m/s. The presence of canal occlusion was measured optically with a high-speed camera. This was repeated with incremental increases of 4% compressive strain until a vertebral fracture was detected using acoustic emission measurements and computed tomographic imaging.

RESULTS

For axial compression without fracture, the peak occlusion (O_max) was 29.9±10.0%, which was deduced to be the result of posterior bulging of the intervertebral disc into the spinal canal. O_max correlated significantly with lumbar spinal level (p<.001), the compressive displacement (p<.001) and the cross-sectional area of the vertebra (p=.031).

CONCLUSIONS

Spinal canal occlusion observed without vertebral fracture involves intervertebral disc bulging. The lower lumbar spine tended to be more severely occluded than more proximal levels.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Clinically, intermittent canal occlusion from disc bulging during dynamic compression may not show any radiographic features. The lower lumbar spine should be a focus of injury prevention intervention in cases of high-rate axial compression.