2
|
Hooge ITC, Niehorster DC, Nyström M, Andersson R, Hessels RS. Is human classification by experienced untrained observers a gold standard in fixation detection? Behav Res Methods 2018; 50:1864-1881. [PMID: 29052166 PMCID: PMC7875941 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-017-0955-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Manual classification is still a common method to evaluate event detection algorithms. The procedure is often as follows: Two or three human coders and the algorithm classify a significant quantity of data. In the gold standard approach, deviations from the human classifications are considered to be due to mistakes of the algorithm. However, little is known about human classification in eye tracking. To what extent do the classifications from a larger group of human coders agree? Twelve experienced but untrained human coders classified fixations in 6 min of adult and infant eye-tracking data. When using the sample-based Cohen's kappa, the classifications of the humans agreed near perfectly. However, we found substantial differences between the classifications when we examined fixation duration and number of fixations. We hypothesized that the human coders applied different (implicit) thresholds and selection rules. Indeed, when spatially close fixations were merged, most of the classification differences disappeared. On the basis of the nature of these intercoder differences, we concluded that fixation classification by experienced untrained human coders is not a gold standard. To bridge the gap between agreement measures (e.g., Cohen's kappa) and eye movement parameters (fixation duration, number of fixations), we suggest the use of the event-based F1 score and two new measures: the relative timing offset (RTO) and the relative timing deviation (RTD).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ignace T C Hooge
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 1, 3584 CS, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Diederick C Niehorster
- Lund University Humanities Lab, Lund University, Helgonabacken 12, 22362, Lund, Sweden
- Department of Psychology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Marcus Nyström
- Lund University Humanities Lab, Lund University, Helgonabacken 12, 22362, Lund, Sweden
| | - Richard Andersson
- Eye Information Group, IT University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Philosophy and Cognitive Sciences, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Roy S Hessels
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 1, 3584 CS, Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Developmental Psychology, Utrecht University, Helgonabacken 1, 3584 CS, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Norén Selinus E, Molero Y, Lichtenstein P, Larson T, Lundström S, Anckarsäter H, Gumpert CH. Childhood Symptoms of ADHD Overrule Comorbidity in Relation to Psychosocial Outcome at Age 15: A Longitudinal Study. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0137475. [PMID: 26360378 PMCID: PMC4567137 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0137475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Neurodevelopmental problems (NDPs) may influence the transition from childhood to adolescence. Our aim was to study long-term psychosocial outcomes of NDPs, focusing on ADHD. Method Data was collected through a telephone interview with parents of twins at ages 9 or 12 years. NDP screen-positive children were clinically assessed at age 15; N = 450. Psychosocial outcome concerning peers, school, internalizing problems, antisocial behavior, alcohol misuse, drug misuse, and impaired daily functioning was examined. Results Even after controlling for other NDP comorbidity, screen-positivity for ADHD doubled or tripled the odds of later psychosocial problems. When controlling for parental education level, the significant effect of ADHD remained only for antisocial behavior and impaired daily functioning. Conclusions Signs of NDPs as well as other psychiatric diagnoses at ages 9 or 12 years are associated with a more problematic adolescence. However, despite the presence of comorbidity, early ADHD symptoms stand out as the most important risk factor for later antisocial development and impaired daily functioning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eva Norén Selinus
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Centre for Psychiatry Research & Education, Karolinska Institutet & Stockholm County Council, Stockholm, Sweden
- * E-mail:
| | - Yasmina Molero
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Paul Lichtenstein
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Tomas Larson
- Center for Ethics, Law and Mental Health (CELAM), University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Sebastian Lundström
- Center for Ethics, Law and Mental Health (CELAM), University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden
- Gillberg Neuropsychiatry Centre, University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Henrik Anckarsäter
- Center for Ethics, Law and Mental Health (CELAM), University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Clara Hellner Gumpert
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Centre for Psychiatry Research & Education, Karolinska Institutet & Stockholm County Council, Stockholm, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Chen Q, Sjölander A, Långström N, Rodriguez A, Serlachius E, D’Onofrio BM, Lichtenstein P, Larsson H. Maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index and offspring attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a population-based cohort study using a sibling-comparison design. Int J Epidemiol 2014; 43:83-90. [PMID: 24058000 PMCID: PMC3937971 DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyt152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND High maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) is associated with increased risk of offspring attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, the role of unmeasured familial confounding for this association remains unclear. METHODS We conducted a population-based cohort study via linkage of Swedish national and regional registers to investigate maternal pre-pregnancy BMI (underweight: BMI <18.5; overweight: 25≤ BMI <30; obesity: BMI ≥30) in relation to offspring ADHD. We followed 673 632 individuals born in Sweden between 1992 and 2000, with prospectively collected information on maternal pre-pregnancy BMI, until they received an ADHD diagnosis or ADHD medication, death, emigration or 31 December 2009. Hazard ratios (HRs) were estimated by Cox proportional hazards models. Stratified Cox proportional hazards models were applied to data on full siblings to control for unmeasured familial confounding. RESULTS At the population level, pre-pregnancy overweight/obesity was associated with increased risk of offspring ADHD (HR(overweight) = 1.23, 95% CI = 1.18-1.27, P = 0.01; HR(obesity) = 1.64, 95% CI = 1.57-1.73, P = 0.01), after adjustment for measured covariates. In full sibling comparisons, however, previously observed associations no longer remained (HR(overweight) = 0.98, 95% CI = 0.83-1.16, P = 0.82; HR(obesity) = 1.15, 95% CI = 0.85-1.56, P = 0.38). CONCLUSIONS The results suggested that the association between maternal pre-pregnancy overweight/obesity and offspring ADHD could be ascribed to unmeasured familial confounding.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qi Chen
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden, Department of Social Sciences–Psychology, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Imperial College London, London, UK, Medical Research Council Social Genetic Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King’s College London, London, UK, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden and Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Arvid Sjölander
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden, Department of Social Sciences–Psychology, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Imperial College London, London, UK, Medical Research Council Social Genetic Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King’s College London, London, UK, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden and Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Niklas Långström
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden, Department of Social Sciences–Psychology, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Imperial College London, London, UK, Medical Research Council Social Genetic Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King’s College London, London, UK, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden and Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Alina Rodriguez
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden, Department of Social Sciences–Psychology, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Imperial College London, London, UK, Medical Research Council Social Genetic Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King’s College London, London, UK, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden and Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Eva Serlachius
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden, Department of Social Sciences–Psychology, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Imperial College London, London, UK, Medical Research Council Social Genetic Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King’s College London, London, UK, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden and Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Brian M D’Onofrio
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden, Department of Social Sciences–Psychology, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Imperial College London, London, UK, Medical Research Council Social Genetic Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King’s College London, London, UK, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden and Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Paul Lichtenstein
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden, Department of Social Sciences–Psychology, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Imperial College London, London, UK, Medical Research Council Social Genetic Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King’s College London, London, UK, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden and Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| | - Henrik Larsson
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden, Department of Social Sciences–Psychology, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Imperial College London, London, UK, Medical Research Council Social Genetic Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King’s College London, London, UK, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden and Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
| |
Collapse
|