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Zhang W, Yang L, Kuang H, Yang P, Aguilar ZP, Wang A, Fu F, Xu H. Acute toxicity of quantum dots on late pregnancy mice: Effects of nanoscale size and surface coating. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2016; 318:61-69. [PMID: 27399148 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.06.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2016] [Revised: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the effects of cadmium containing QDs (such as CdSe/ZnS and CdSe QDs) and bulk CdCl2 in pregnant mice, their fetuses, and the pregnancy outcomes were investigated. It was shown that although the QDs and bulk CdCl2 were effectively blocked by the placental barrier, the damage on the placenta caused by CdSe QDs still led to fetus malformation, while the mice in CdSe/ZnS QDs treatment group exhibited slightly hampered growth but showed no significant abnormalities. Moreover, the Cd contents in the placenta and the uterus of CdSe QDs and CdSe/ZnS QDs treatment groups showed significantly higher than the CdCl2 treated group which indicated that the nanoscale size of the QDs allowed relative ease of entry into the gestation tissues. In addition, the CdSe QDs more effectively altered the expression levels of susceptive genes related to cell apoptosis, dysplasia, metal transport, cryptorrhea, and oxidative stress, etc. These findings suggested that the nanoscale size of the QDs were probably more important than the free Cd in inducing toxicity. Furthermore, the results indicated that the outer surface shell coating played a protective role in the adverse effects of QDs on late pregnancy mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanyi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, PR China; The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330000, PR China
| | - Lin Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, PR China
| | - Huijuan Kuang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, PR China
| | - Pengfei Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, PR China
| | | | - Andrew Wang
- Ocean NanoTech, LLC, Springdale, AR72764, USA
| | - Fen Fu
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang 330000, PR China.
| | - Hengyi Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330047, PR China.
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Hasanzadeh M, Sharifi N, Farazestanian M, Nazemian SS, Madani Sani F. Immunohistochemistry Study of P53 and C-erbB-2 Expression in Trophoblastic Tissue and Their Predictive Values in Diagnosing Malignant Progression of Simple Molar Pregnancy. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF CANCER PREVENTION 2016; 9:e4115. [PMID: 27703642 PMCID: PMC5038832 DOI: 10.17795/ijcp-4115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2015] [Revised: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 06/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Background Finding a tumor marker to predict the aggressive behavior of molar pregnancy in early stages has yet been a topic for studies. Objectives In this survey we planned to study patients with molar pregnancy to 1) assess the p53 and c-erbB-2 expression in trophoblastic tissue, 2) to study the relationship between their expression intensity and progression of a molar pregnancy to gestational trophoblastic neoplasia, and 3) to determine a cut off value for the amount of p53 and c-erbB-2 expression which might correlate with aggressive behavior of molar pregnancy. Patients and Methods In a prospective cross sectional study by using a high accuracy technique EnVision Tm system for immunohistochemistry staining of molar pregnancy samples, we evaluated p53 and c-erbB-2 expression in cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast and the correlation of their expression with progression of molar pregnancy to gestational trophoblastic neoplasia (GTN). Normal prostatic tissue and Breast cancer tissue were used as positive controls. Results We studied 28 patients with simple molar pregnancy (SMP) and 30 with GTN. Cytotrophobalst had significantly higher expression of p53 and c-erbB-2 and syncytiotrophoblast had greater expression of p53 in GTN group as compared to SMP group. The cut off values for percentage of p53 positive immunostained cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast were 5.5% and 2.5%. In c-erbB-2 positive membranous stained cytotrophoblast the cut off was 12.5%. Conclusions Our data suggests that over expression of p53 and c-erbB-2 is associated with malignant progression of molar pregnancy. We encountered that high expression of p53 and c-erbB-2 in trophoblastic cells could predict gestational trophoblastic neoplasia during the early stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malihe Hasanzadeh
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Women Health Research Center, Qaem Hospital, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, IR Iran
| | - Norrie Sharifi
- Department of Pathology, Qaem Hospital, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, IR Iran
| | - Marjaneh Farazestanian
- Women Health Research Center, Qaem Hospital, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, IR Iran
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Fraga LR, Dutra CG, Boquett JA, Vianna FSL, Gonçalves RO, Paskulin DD, Costa OL, Ashton-Prolla P, Sanseverino MTV, Schuler-Faccini L. p53 signaling pathway polymorphisms associated to recurrent pregnancy loss. Mol Biol Rep 2014; 41:1871-7. [PMID: 24435975 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-014-3036-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2013] [Accepted: 01/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The p53 protein is known for performing essential functions in the maintenance of genomic stability in somatic cells and prevention of tumor formation. Studies of the p53 signaling pathway have suggested associations between some polymorphisms and infertility, post-in vitro fertilization implantation failure and recurrent abortions. The TP53 Pro72Arg polymorphism has been implicated as a risk factor for recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL); however, the association is controversial. In this study, our objective was to evaluate selected polymorphisms in genes of the p53 signalling pathway [TP53 c.215G>C (Pro72Arg), MDM2 c.14+309T>G (SNP309) and LIF c.1414T>G in the region 3' UTR] and determine their effect as risk factors for RPL. In a case-control study, we investigated 120 women with two or more pregnancy losses and 143 fertile control women reporting at least two live births and no history of pregnancy loss. When analyzed separately, the allele and genotype distributions of the polymorphisms in the two groups were not different. However, in a multivariate analysis adjusted for alcohol consumption, smoking, ethnicity, and number of pregnancies, the interaction between the genotypes TP53 Arg/Arg (rs1042522) and MDM2 TT (rs2279744) showed to be associated to RPL, increasing the risk for this condition (OR = 2.58, 95% CI: 1.31-5.07, p = 0.006). In conclusion, our study indicates that the combination of TP53 Arg/Arg (rs1042522) and MDM2 TT (rs2279744) genotypes may be a risk factor for RPL.
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Affiliation(s)
- L R Fraga
- Post-Graduation Program in Genetics and Molecular Biology, Departament of Genetics, Biosciences Institute, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Caixa Postal 15031 - Agencia Campus UFRGS, Porto Alegre, RS, 91501-970, Brazil,
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Furukawa S, Hayashi S, Abe M, Hagio S, Irie K, Kuroda Y, Ogawa I, Sugiyama A. Effect of chlorpromazine on rat placenta development. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 66:41-7. [PMID: 24139509 DOI: 10.1016/j.etp.2013.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We examined the sequential histopathological changes in the placentas from rats exposed to chlorpromazine. Chlorpromazine was intraperitoneally administered on GD 14 at 50 and 100 mg/kg and the placentas were sampled on GDs 14.5, 15, 17 and 21. The incidence of dams with complete fetal resorption was increased from GD 17 up to 20% at 50 mg/kg and 44.4% at 100 mg/kg. The embryo/fetal weights reduced on GDs 15 and 17 at 50 mg/kg and during GDs 15-21 at 100 mg/kg. The placental weights reduced on GD 17 at 50 mg/kg and during GDs 14.5-21 at 100 mg/kg. Histopathologically, in the labyrinth zone, apoptotic cells were scattered in the trophoblastic septa without inhibition of cell proliferation on GDs 14.5 and 15 at 50 and 100 mg/kg in a dose-dependent manner. A decrease in trophoblasts led to labyrinth zone hypoplasia. In the basal zone, apoptotic cells were scattered on GDs 14.5 and 15 at 100 mg/kg, and most of them appeared to be glycogen cells. A decrease in glycogen cells induced the delayed development of glycogen cell islands and the subsequent remaining glycogen cell islands, and led to the cystic degeneration of glycogen cells. In addition, failure of development of the glycogen cell islands led to the impaired interstitial invasion of the glycogen cells, and then metrial gland hypoplasia occurred.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Furukawa
- Biological Research Laboratories, Nissan Chemical Industries, Ltd., 1470 Shiraoka, Shiraoka-shi, Saitama 349-0294, Japan.
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Sequence of busulfan-induced neural progenitor cell damage in the fetal rat brain. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 65:523-30. [PMID: 22494849 DOI: 10.1016/j.etp.2012.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2011] [Revised: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 03/11/2012] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The sequence of neural progenitor cell (NPC) damage induced in fetal rat brain by transplacental exposure to busulfan, an antineoplastic bifunctional-alkylating agent, on gestational day 13 was examined by immunohistochemical and real-time RT-PCR analyses. Following busulfan treatment, pyknotic NPCs first appeared in the medial layer and then extended to the dorsal layer of the ventricular zone (VZ) of the telencephalon. Pyknotic NPCs that were immunohistochemically positive for cleaved caspase-3, i.e. apoptotic NPCs, began to increase at 24 h after treatment, peaked at 48 h, and returned to the control levels at 96 h. On the other hand, the index (%) of phospho-histone H3-positive NPCs, i.e. mitotic NPCs, and that of BrdU-positive NPCs, i.e. S-phase cells, decreased in accordance with the increase in the index of apoptotic NPCs. Prior to the peak time of apoptotic NPCs, the indices of p53- and p21-positive NPCs peaked at 36 h. In addition, the expression levels of p21 and Puma (p53-target genes) mRNAs were elevated in real-time RT-PCR analysis. These findings indicated that busulfan not only induced apoptosis through the p53-mediated intrinsic pathway but also inhibited cell proliferation in NPCs, resulting in a reduction of the width of the telencephalon. On the other hand, in spite of up-regulation of p21 expression, the expression of cyclin D1, part of the cell cycle machinery of the G1/S transition, and the expression levels of Cdc20 and cyclin B1 which are involved in G2/M transition, showed no changes, giving no possible information of busulfan-induced cell cycle arrest in NPCs.
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Doi K. Mechanisms of neurotoxicity induced in the developing brain of mice and rats by DNA-damaging chemicals. J Toxicol Sci 2012; 36:695-712. [PMID: 22129734 DOI: 10.2131/jts.36.695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
It is not widely known how the developing brain responds to extrinsic damage, although the developing brain is considered to be sensitive to diverse environmental factors including DNA-damaging agents. This paper reviews the mechanisms of neurotoxicity induced in the developing brain of mice and rats by six chemicals (ethylnitrosourea, hydroxyurea, 5-azacytidine, cytosine arabinoside, 6-mercaptopurine and etoposide), which cause DNA damage in different ways, especially from the viewpoints of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in neural progenitor cells. In addition, this paper also reviews the repair process following damage in the developing brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunio Doi
- Nippon Institute for Biological Science, Ome, Tokyo, Japan.
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Nordquist N, Luthman H, Pettersson U, Eriksson UJ. Linkage study of embryopathy-polygenic inheritance of diabetes-induced skeletal malformations in the rat. Reprod Toxicol 2012; 33:297-307. [PMID: 22227068 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2011.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2011] [Revised: 12/13/2011] [Accepted: 12/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
We developed an inbred rat model of diabetic embryopathy, in which the offspring displays skeletal malformations (agnathia or micrognathia) when the mother is diabetic, and no malformations when she is not diabetic. Our aim was to find genes controlling the embryonic maldevelopment in a diabetic environment. We contrasted the fetal outcome in inbred Sprague-Dawley L rats (20% skeletal malformations in diabetic pregnancy) with that of inbred Wistar Furth rats (denotedW, no skeletal malformations in diabetic pregnancy). We used offspring from the backcross F(1)×L to probe for the genetic basis for malformation of the mandible in diabetic pregnancy. A set of 186 fetuses (93 affected, 93 unaffected) was subjected to a whole genome scan with 160 micro satellites. Analysis of genotype distribution indicated 7 loci on chromosome 4, 10 (3 loci), 14, 18, and 19 in the teratogenic process (and 14 other loci on 12 chromosomes with less strong association to the malformations), several of which contained genes implicated in other experimental studies of diabetic embryopathy. These candidate genes will be scrutinized in further experimentation. We conclude that the genetic involvement in rodent diabetic embryopathy is polygenic and predisposing for congenital malformations.
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Furukawa S, Hayashi S, Usuda K, Abe M, Hagio S, Ogawa I. Effect of cisplatin on rat placenta development. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 65:211-7. [PMID: 21924597 DOI: 10.1016/j.etp.2011.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2011] [Revised: 07/23/2011] [Accepted: 08/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
We examined the sequential histopathological changes in the placenta from rats exposed to cisplatin. Cisplatin was intraperitoneally administered at 2 mg/kg/day during GDs 11-12 (GD11,12-treated group), or GDs 13-14 (GD13,14-treated group), and the placentas were sampled on GDs 13, 15, 17 and 21. Fetal mortality rates were increased up to approximately 65% from GD 17 onward, and fetal weights were decreased on GD 21 in the GD11,12-treated group. A reduction in placental weights was detected from GD 15 onward, and the placentas on GD 21 were macroscopically small and thin in both treated groups. Histopathologically, in the GD13,14-treated group, an increase in apoptotic cells was detected on GDs 15 and 17 in the labyrinth zone, and on GD 21 in the basal zone, resulting in labyrinth zone hypoplasia. By contrast, in the GD11,12-treated group, an increase in apoptotic cells was detected on GDs 13, 15 and 17 in the labyrinth zone, and during the experimental period in the basal zone. A decrease in Phospho-Histone H3 positive cells was detected on GD 13 in the labyrinth zone and basal zone, resulting in hypoplasia of the labyrinth zone and basal zone. In addition, a marked decrease in glycogen cell-islands in the basal zone was also detected on GDs 15 and 17. There was a reduction in interstitial invasion of glycogen cell-like trophoblasts into the metrial gland on GD 15, resulting in metrial gland hypoplasia. Therefore, we consider that cisplatin administration in pregnant rats induces growth arrest of the labyrinth zone and basal zone, leading to small placenta. It is assumed that metrial gland hypoplasia is secondarily induced by the failure of glycogen cell island development associated with basal zone hypoplasia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Furukawa
- Toxicology & Environmental Science Department, Biological Research Laboratories, Nissan Chemical Industries, Ltd., 1470 Shiraoka, Minamisaitama, Saitama 349-0294, Japan.
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Korgun ET, Unek G, Herrera E, Jones CJ, Wadsack C, Kipmen-Korgun D, Desoye G. Mapping of CIP/KIP inhibitors, G1 cyclins D1, D3, E and p53 proteins in the rat term placenta. Histochem Cell Biol 2011; 136:267-78. [DOI: 10.1007/s00418-011-0841-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/09/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Tochitani T, Kanemitsu H, Yamauchi H, Uchida K, Nakayama H. 5-azacytidine, a chemotherapeutic drug, induces TRAIL-mediated apoptosis in mouse thymocytes in vivo. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 63:237-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.etp.2009.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2008] [Revised: 04/18/2009] [Accepted: 12/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Hussein MR. Analysis of p53, BCL-2 and epidermal growth factor receptor protein expression in the partial and complete hydatidiform moles. Exp Mol Pathol 2009; 87:63-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yexmp.2009.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2008] [Revised: 03/26/2009] [Accepted: 03/27/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Kanemitsu H, Yamauchi H, Komatsu M, Yamamoto S, Okazaki S, Uchida K, Nakayama H. 6-mercaptopurine (6-MP) induces p53-mediated apoptosis of neural progenitor cells in the developing fetal rodent brain. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2009; 31:198-202. [PMID: 19281843 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2009.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2008] [Revised: 02/28/2009] [Accepted: 02/28/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
6-mercaptopurine (6-MP), a DNA-damaging agent, induces apoptosis of neural progenitor cells, and causes malformation in the fetal brain. The aim of the present study is to clarify the molecular pathway of 6-MP-induced apoptosis of neural progenitor cells in the fetal telencephalon of rats and mice. p53 protein is activated by DNA damage and induces apoptosis through either the intrinsic pathway involving the mitochondria or the extrinsic pathway triggered by death receptors. In this study, the expression of puma and cleaved caspase-9 proteins, which are specific intrinsic pathway factors, increased in the rat telencephalon after 6-MP treatment. 6-MP-induced apoptosis of neural progenitor cells was completely absent in p53-deficient mice. On the other hand, the expression of Fas protein, an extrinsic pathway factor, did not change throughout the experimental period in the rat telencephalon treated with 6-MP. The number of apoptotic neural progenitor cells was similar among Fas-mutated lpr/lpr and wild-type mice, suggesting that the Fas pathway does not play a significant role in 6-MP-induced apoptosis of neural progenitor cells. These results may suggest that the p53-mediated intrinsic pathway is essential for 6-MP-induced apoptosis of neural progenitor cells in the developing telencephalon of rats and mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Kanemitsu
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
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Yamauchi H, Katayama KI, Ueno M, Kanemitsu H, Nam C, Mikami T, Saito A, Ishida Y, Uetsuka K, Doi K, Ohmach Y, Nakayama H. Etoposide induces TRP53-dependent apoptosis and TRP53-independent cell cycle arrest in trophoblasts of the developing mouse placenta. Biol Reprod 2008; 80:813-22. [PMID: 19109225 DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.108.069419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Abnormal regulation of placental apoptosis and proliferation has been implicated in placental disorders. Recently, several DNA-damaging agents were reported to induce excessive apoptosis and reduce cell proliferation in the placenta; however, the molecular pathways of these toxic effects on the placenta are unclear. The aim of the present study was to determine the involvement of TRP53, a tumor suppressor that mediates cellular responses to DNA damage, in the induction of apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in the developing placenta. For this purpose, we treated pregnant mice on Day 12 of gestation with 10 mg/kg of etoposide and 5-Gy gamma irradiation, potent inducers of DNA damage. We found an increase in the number of trophoblastic apoptoses 8 and 24 h after etoposide injection and 6 and 24 h after irradiation in the placental labyrinth zone. The number of mitoses and DNA syntheses in trophoblasts decreased after treatment. The accumulation and phosphorylation of TRP53 protein were detected 8 and 6 h after etoposide injection and irradiation, respectively. In Trp53-deficient placentas, the induction of etoposide-induced trophoblastic apoptosis is abrogated, while the reduction of proliferation occurred similarly as in wild-type placentas. CDC2A, a regulator of G2/M progression, was inactivated by phosphorylation after etoposide injection and irradiation, suggesting that the cell cycle was arrested at the G2/M border by treatment. Our study demonstrated that etoposide injection induced TRP53-dependent apoptosis and TRP53-independent cell cycle arrest in labyrinthine trophoblasts, providing insights into the molecular pathway of placental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirofumi Yamauchi
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
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T-2 toxin-induced toxicity in pregnant mice and rats. Int J Mol Sci 2008; 9:2146-2158. [PMID: 19330064 PMCID: PMC2635623 DOI: 10.3390/ijms9112146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2008] [Revised: 10/31/2008] [Accepted: 11/04/2008] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
T-2 toxin is a cytotoxic secondary fungal metabolite that belongs to the trichothecene mycotoxin family. This mycotoxin is a well known inhibitor of protein synthesis through its high binding affinity to peptidyl transferase, which is an integral part of the ribosomal 60s subunit, and it also inhibits the synthesis of DNA and RNA, probably secondary to the inhibition of protein synthesis. In addition, T-2 toxin is said to induce apoptosis in many types of cells bearing high proliferating activity. T-2 toxin readily passes the placenta and is distributed to embryo/fetal tissues, which include many component cells bearing high proliferating activity. This paper reviews the reported data related to T-2 toxin-induced maternal and fetal toxicities in pregnant mice and rats. The mechanisms of T-2 toxin-induced apoptosis in maternal and fetal tissues are also discussed in this paper.
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