1
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Marinho MM, da Rocha MN, Magalhães EP, Ribeiro LR, Roberto CHA, de Queiroz Almeida-Neto FW, Monteiro ML, Nunes JVS, de Menezes RRPPB, Marinho ES, de Lima Neto P, Martins AMC, Dos Santos HS. Insights of potential trypanocidal effect of the synthetic derivative (2E)-1-(4-aminophenyl)-3-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)prop-2-en-1-one: in vitro assay, MEV analysis, quantum study, molecular docking, molecular dynamics, MPO analysis, and predictive ADMET. NAUNYN-SCHMIEDEBERG'S ARCHIVES OF PHARMACOLOGY 2024; 397:7797-7818. [PMID: 38722342 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-024-03138-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 10/04/2024]
Abstract
This study aims to evaluate the antitrypanosomiasis activity of a synthetic dichloro-substituted aminochalcone via in vitro assays against infected cell cultures, as well as a theoretical characterization of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics against the protein targets of the evolutionary cycle of T. cruzi. The in vitro evaluation of parasite proliferation inhibition was performed via cytotoxicity analysis on mammalian host cells, effect on epimastigote and trypomastigote forms, and cell death analysis, while computer simulations characterized the electronic structure of (2E)-1-(4-aminophenyl)-3-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)prop-2-en-1-one (DCl), the mechanism of action against the proteins of the evolutionary cycle of T. cruzi: Cruzain, Trypanothione reductase, TcGAPDH, and CYP51 by molecular docking and dynamics and predictive pharmacokinetics by MPO-based ADMET. The in vitro tests showed that the DCl LC50 in order of 178.9 ± 23.9 was similar to the BZN, evidencing the effectiveness of chalcone against Trypomastigotes. Molecular docking and dynamics simulations suggest that DCl acts on the active site of the CYP51 receptor, with hydrogen interactions that showed a high degree of occupation, establishing a stable complex with the target. MPO analysis and ADMET prediction tests suggest that the compound presents an alignment between permeability and hepatic clearance, although it presents low metabolic stability. Chalcone showed stable pharmacodynamics against the CYP51 target, but can form reactive metabolites from N-conjugation and C = C epoxidation, as an indication of controlled oral dose, although the estimated LD50 rate > 500 mg/kg is a indicative of low incidence of lethality by ingestion, constituting a promising therapeutic strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Márcia Machado Marinho
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Regional University of Cariri, Crato, CE, Brazil
- Center for Exact Sciences and Technology, State University of Vale do Acaraú, Sobral, CE, Brazil
| | - Matheus Nunes da Rocha
- Center for Science and Technology, Postgraduate Program in Natural Sciences, State University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Emanuel Paula Magalhães
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Lyanna Rodrigues Ribeiro
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Caio Henrique Alexandre Roberto
- Center for Science and Technology, Postgraduate Program in Natural Sciences, State University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | | | - Marília Lopes Monteiro
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - João Victor Serra Nunes
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | | | - Emmanuel Silva Marinho
- Center for Science and Technology, Postgraduate Program in Natural Sciences, State University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Pedro de Lima Neto
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Physical Chemistry, Federal University of Ceará, Campus do Pici, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Alice Maria Costa Martins
- Department of Clinical and Toxicological Analysis, Federal University of Ceará, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Hélcio Silva Dos Santos
- Center for Exact Sciences and Technology, State University of Vale do Acaraú, Sobral, CE, Brazil.
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Majhi S, Awasthi BP, Sharma RK, Mitra K. Buparvaquone Induces Ultrastructural and Physiological Alterations Leading to Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Caspase-Independent Apoptotic Cell Death in Leishmania donovani. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2024; 30:521-538. [PMID: 38709559 DOI: 10.1093/mam/ozae034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 03/31/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a neglected tropical disease (endemic in 99 countries) caused by parasitic protozoa of the genus Leishmania. As treatment options are limited, there is an unmet need for new drugs. The hydroxynaphthoquinone class of compounds demonstrates broad-spectrum activity against protozoan parasites. Buparvaquone (BPQ), a member of this class, is the only drug licensed for the treatment of theileriosis. BPQ has shown promising antileishmanial activity but its mode of action is largely unknown. The aim of this study was to evaluate the ultrastructural and physiological effects of BPQ for elucidating the mechanisms underlying the in vitro antiproliferative activity in Leishmania donovani. Transmission and scanning electron microscopy analyses of BPQ-treated parasites revealed ultrastructural effects characteristic of apoptosis-like cell death, which include alterations in the nucleus, mitochondrion, kinetoplast, flagella, and the flagellar pocket. Using flow cytometry, laser scanning confocal microscopy, and fluorometry, we found that BPQ induced caspase-independent apoptosis-like cell death by losing plasma membrane phospholipid asymmetry and cell cycle arrest at sub-G0/G1 phase. Depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane leads to the generation of oxidative stress and impaired ATP synthesis followed by disruption of intracellular calcium homeostasis. Collectively, these findings provide valuable mechanistic insights and demonstrate BPQ's potential for development as an antileishmanial agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swetapadma Majhi
- Electron Microscopy Unit, Sophisticated Analytical Instrument Facility and Research, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226031, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Sector 19, Kamla Nehru Nagar, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201 002, India
| | - Bhanu Priya Awasthi
- Electron Microscopy Unit, Sophisticated Analytical Instrument Facility and Research, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226031, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Sector 19, Kamla Nehru Nagar, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201 002, India
| | - Rakesh Kumar Sharma
- Electron Microscopy Unit, Sophisticated Analytical Instrument Facility and Research, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226031, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Sector 19, Kamla Nehru Nagar, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201 002, India
| | - Kalyan Mitra
- Electron Microscopy Unit, Sophisticated Analytical Instrument Facility and Research, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh 226031, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Sector 19, Kamla Nehru Nagar, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh 201 002, India
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3
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Oliveira TZ, Fonseca DP, Dos Santos AH, da Silva TR, Lazarin-Bidóia D, Din ZU, Filho BPD, Nakamura CV, Rodrigues-Filho E, Ueda-Nakamura T. Synthetic dibenzylideneketones as promising anti-herpes simplex virus type 1 agents. Arch Virol 2023; 168:153. [PMID: 37140819 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-023-05777-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
New antiviral agents for the treatment of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) infection, which causes a highly prevalent and incurable disease, are needed. Here, we report for the first time the in vitro anti-HSV-1 activity of two dibenzylideneketone compounds: DBK1 and DBK2. DBK1 demonstrated virucidal activity, and high-resolution scanning electron microscopy showed that it caused morphological changes in the HSV-1 envelope. DBK2 was able to reduce HSV-1 plaque size in vitro. The DBKs are promising anti-HSV-1 candidates, as they exhibit low toxicity and exert an antiviral effect by acting at the early stages of HSV-1-host cell interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thalita Zago Oliveira
- Department of Basic Health Sciences, Laboratory of Technological Innovation in the Development of Drugs and Cosmetics, State University of Maringá, Avenida Colombo, 5790, Maringá, Paraná, 87020-900, Brazil
| | - Dyenefer Pereira Fonseca
- Department of Basic Health Sciences, Laboratory of Technological Innovation in the Development of Drugs and Cosmetics, State University of Maringá, Avenida Colombo, 5790, Maringá, Paraná, 87020-900, Brazil
| | - André Henrique Dos Santos
- Department of Basic Health Sciences, Laboratory of Technological Innovation in the Development of Drugs and Cosmetics, State University of Maringá, Avenida Colombo, 5790, Maringá, Paraná, 87020-900, Brazil
| | - Thays Rosa da Silva
- Department of Basic Health Sciences, Laboratory of Technological Innovation in the Development of Drugs and Cosmetics, State University of Maringá, Avenida Colombo, 5790, Maringá, Paraná, 87020-900, Brazil
| | - Danielle Lazarin-Bidóia
- Department of Basic Health Sciences, Laboratory of Technological Innovation in the Development of Drugs and Cosmetics, State University of Maringá, Avenida Colombo, 5790, Maringá, Paraná, 87020-900, Brazil
| | - Zia Ud Din
- Laboratory of Micromolecular Biochemistry of Microorganisms, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Benedito Prado Dias Filho
- Department of Basic Health Sciences, Laboratory of Technological Innovation in the Development of Drugs and Cosmetics, State University of Maringá, Avenida Colombo, 5790, Maringá, Paraná, 87020-900, Brazil
| | - Celso Vataru Nakamura
- Department of Basic Health Sciences, Laboratory of Technological Innovation in the Development of Drugs and Cosmetics, State University of Maringá, Avenida Colombo, 5790, Maringá, Paraná, 87020-900, Brazil
| | - Edson Rodrigues-Filho
- Laboratory of Micromolecular Biochemistry of Microorganisms, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Tania Ueda-Nakamura
- Department of Basic Health Sciences, Laboratory of Technological Innovation in the Development of Drugs and Cosmetics, State University of Maringá, Avenida Colombo, 5790, Maringá, Paraná, 87020-900, Brazil.
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Zani AP, Zani CP, Din ZU, Rodrigues-Filho E, Ueda-Nakamura T, Garcia FP, de Oliveira Silva S, Nakamura CV. Dibenzylideneacetone Induces Apoptosis in Cervical Cancer Cells through Ros-Mediated Mitochondrial Damage. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:antiox12020317. [PMID: 36829876 PMCID: PMC9952489 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12020317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Cervical cancer is a health problem among women worldwide. Considering the limitations of prevention and antineoplastic chemotherapy against cervical cancer, research is needed to discover new, more effective, and safe antitumor agents. In the present study, we investigated the in vitro cytotoxicity of a new synthetic dibenzylideneacetone derived from 1,5-diaryl-3-oxo-1,4-pentadienyl (A3K2A3) against cervical cancer cells immortalized by HPV 16 (SiHa), and 18 (HeLa) by MTT assay. Furthermore, we performed spectrofluorimetry, flow cytometry, and Western blot analyzes to explore the inhibitory mechanism of A3K2A3 in cervical cancer cells. A3K2A3 showed cytotoxic activity against both cell lines. Mitochondrial depolarization and reduction in intracellular ATP levels were observed, which may be dependent on the redox imbalance between increased ROS and reduced levels of the antioxidant defense. In addition, damage to the cell membrane and DNA, and effective blocking of cell division in the G2/M phase were detected, which possibly led to the induction of apoptosis. This result was further confirmed by the upregulation of apoptosis-related proteins Bax, cytochrome C, and caspases 9 and 3. Our results provided the first evidence that A3K2A3 contributes to the suppression of cervical cancer in vitro, showing promise as a possible alternative for the treatment of this cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline Pinto Zani
- Laboratory of Technological Innovation in the Development of Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics, State University of Maringá, Maringá CEP 87020-900, PR, Brazil
| | - Caroline Pinto Zani
- Laboratory of Technological Innovation in the Development of Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics, State University of Maringá, Maringá CEP 87020-900, PR, Brazil
| | - Zia Ud Din
- LaBioMMi, Department of Chemistry, Federal University of São Carlos, CP 676, São Carlos CEP 13565-905, SP, Brazil
| | - Edson Rodrigues-Filho
- LaBioMMi, Department of Chemistry, Federal University of São Carlos, CP 676, São Carlos CEP 13565-905, SP, Brazil
| | - Tânia Ueda-Nakamura
- Laboratory of Technological Innovation in the Development of Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics, State University of Maringá, Maringá CEP 87020-900, PR, Brazil
| | - Francielle Pelegrin Garcia
- Laboratory of Technological Innovation in the Development of Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics, State University of Maringá, Maringá CEP 87020-900, PR, Brazil
| | - Sueli de Oliveira Silva
- Laboratory of Technological Innovation in the Development of Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics, State University of Maringá, Maringá CEP 87020-900, PR, Brazil
| | - Celso Vataru Nakamura
- Laboratory of Technological Innovation in the Development of Pharmaceuticals and Cosmetics, State University of Maringá, Maringá CEP 87020-900, PR, Brazil
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-(044)-3011-5012; Fax: +55-(044)-3011-5046
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Chloride substitution on 2-hydroxy-3,4,6-trimethoxyphenylchalcones improves in vitro selectivity on Trypanosoma cruzi strain Y. Chem Biol Interact 2022; 361:109920. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2022.109920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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Das A, Kamran M, Ali N. HO-3867 Induces ROS-Dependent Stress Response and Apoptotic Cell Death in Leishmania donovani. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:774899. [PMID: 34926321 PMCID: PMC8677699 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.774899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Lack of vaccine and increasing chemotherapeutic toxicities currently necessitate the development of effective and safe drugs against various forms of leishmaniases. We characterized the cellular stress induced by a novel curcumin analogue, HO-3867, encapsulated within the phosphatidylcholine-stearylamine (PC-SA) liposome for the first time against Leishmania. The liposomal formulation of HO-3867 (i.e., PC-SA/HO-3867) initiated oxidative stress-induced apoptosis in L. donovani, revealed by altered cell morphology, phosphatidylserine externalization, mitochondrial depolarization, intracellular lipid accumulation, and cell cycle arrest in promastigotes. Liposomal HO-3867 was observed to be a strong apoptosis inducer in L. donovani and L. major in a dose-dependent manner, yet completely safe for normal murine macrophages. Moreover, PC-SA/HO-3867 treatment induced L. donovani metacaspase and PARP1 activation along with downregulation of the Sir2 gene. PC-SA/HO-3867 arrested intracellular L. donovani amastigote burden in vitro, with reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO)-mediated parasite killing. These data suggest that liposomal HO-3867 represents a highly promising and non-toxic nanoparticle-based therapeutic platform against leishmaniasis inspiring further preclinical developments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nahid Ali
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology Division, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, India
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Souza TH, Sarmento-Neto JF, Souza SO, Raposo BL, Silva BP, Borges CP, Santos BS, Cabral Filho PE, Rebouças JS, Fontes A. Advances on antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation mediated by Zn(II) porphyrins. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY C: PHOTOCHEMISTRY REVIEWS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochemrev.2021.100454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Fagundes TR, Bortoleti B, Camargo P, Concato V, Tomiotto-Pellissier F, Carloto A, Panis C, Bispo M, Junior FM, Conchon-Costa I, Pavanelli W. Patterns of Cell Death Induced by Thiohydantoins in Human MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cells. Anticancer Agents Med Chem 2021; 22:1592-1600. [PMID: 34382528 DOI: 10.2174/1871520621666210811102441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Conventional therapies for breast cancer is still a challenge due to use of cytotoxic drugs not highly effective with major adverse effects. Thiohydantoins, are biologically active heterocyclic compounds reported by several biological activities, including anticarcinogenic properties, i.e., this work aimed to assess the use of thiohydantoin as a potential antitumor agent against MCF-7 breast cancer cells. METHODS MTT and neutral red assays were used to assess the possible cytotoxic activity of compounds against MCF-7 cells. Cell volume measurement and analysis were performed by flow cytometry, fluorescence analysis was carried out to determine patterns of cell death induced by thiohydantoins. RESULTS The treatment with micromolar doses of thiohydantoins promoted a decrease in the viability of MCF-7 breast tumor cells. Also were observed the increase in ROS and NO production, reduction in cell volume, loss of membrane integrity, mitochondrial depolarization, and increased fluorescence for annexin V and caspase-3. These findings indicate cell death by apoptosis and increased formation of autophagic vacuoles and stopping the cell cycle in the G1/ G0 phase. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that thiohydantoins are cytotoxic to breast tumor cells, and this effect is linked to the increase in ROS production. This phenomenon changes tumorigenic pathways, that lead to a halt of the cell cycle in G1/G0, an important checkpoint for DNA errors, which may have altered the process by which cells produce energy, causing a decrease in mitochondrial viability and thus leading to the apoptotic process. Furthermore, the results indicate increased autophagy, a vital process linked to a decrease in lysosomal viability and considered as a cell death and tumor suppression mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiane Renata Fagundes
- Laboratory of Immunoparasitology of Neglected Diseases and Cancer, State University of Londrina, PR. Brazil
| | - Bruna Bortoleti
- Graduate Program in Biosciences and Biotechnology, Carlos Chagas Institute (ICC), Fiocruz, Curitiba, PR. Brazil
| | - Priscila Camargo
- Laboratory of Properties and Synthesis of Organic Substances, Department of Chemistry, Center of Exact Sciences, Londrina State University, PR. Brazil
| | - Vírgínia Concato
- Laboratory of Immunoparasitology of Neglected Diseases and Cancer, State University of Londrina, PR. Brazil
| | | | - Amanda Carloto
- Laboratory of Immunoparasitology of Neglected Diseases and Cancer, State University of Londrina, PR. Brazil
| | - Carolina Panis
- Laboratory of Tumor Biology, State University of Western Paraná, Francisco Beltrão, Paraná. Brazil
| | - Marcelle Bispo
- Laboratory of Properties and Synthesis of Organic Substances, Department of Chemistry, Center of Exact Sciences, Londrina State University, PR. Brazil
| | - Fernando Macedo Junior
- Graduate Program in Biosciences and Biotechnology, Carlos Chagas Institute (ICC), Fiocruz, Curitiba, PR. Brazil
| | - Ivete Conchon-Costa
- Laboratory of Immunoparasitology of Neglected Diseases and Cancer, State University of Londrina, PR. Brazil
| | - Wander Pavanelli
- Laboratory of Immunoparasitology of Neglected Diseases and Cancer, State University of Londrina, PR. Brazil
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9
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da Silva MA, Fokoue HH, Fialho SN, Dos Santos APDA, Rossi NRDLP, Gouveia ADJ, Ferreira AS, Passarini GM, Garay AFG, Alfonso JJ, Soares AM, Zanchi FB, Kato MJ, Teles CBG, Kuehn CC. Antileishmanial activity evaluation of a natural amide and its synthetic analogs against Leishmania (V.) braziliensis: an integrated approach in vitro and in silico. Parasitol Res 2021; 120:2199-2218. [PMID: 33963899 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-021-07169-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is considered a neglected disease, which makes it an unattractive market for the pharmaceutical industry; hence, efforts in the search for biologically active substances are hampered by this lack of financial motivation. Thus, in the present study, we report the leishmanicidal activity and the possible mechanisms of action of compounds with promising activity against the species Leishmania (V.) braziliensis, the causative agent of the skin disease leishmaniasis. The natural compound 1a (piplartine) and the analog 2a were the most potent against promastigote forms with growth inhibition values for 50% of the parasite population (IC50) = 8.58 and 11.25 μM, respectively. For amastigote forms, the ICa50 values were 1.46 and 16.7 μM, respectively. In the molecular docking study, piplartine showed favorable binding energy (-7.13 kcal/mol) and with 50% inhibition of trypanothione reductase (IC50) = 91.1 μM. Preliminary investigations of the mechanism of action indicate that piplartine increased ROS levels, induced loss of cell membrane integrity, and caused accumulation of lipid bodies after 24 h of incubation at its lowest effective concentration (IC50), which was not observed for the synthetic analog 2a. The mode of action for the leishmanicidal activity of piplartine (1a) was assigned to involve affinity for the trypanothione reductase of Leishmania (V.) braziliensis TR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minelly A da Silva
- Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Rondônia - IFRO, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil.
- Federal University of Rondônia - UNIR, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil.
- Instituto Federal de Rondônia - Porto Velho-Calama, Av. Calama, 4985 - Flodoaldo Pontes Pinto, Porto Velho, RO, 76820-441, Brazil.
| | - Harold H Fokoue
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos, Farmanguinhos - FIOCRUZ/RJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Saara N Fialho
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - Rondônia - FIOCRUZ/RO, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
- Rede de Biodiversidade e Biotecnologia da Amazônia Legal - BIONORTE, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
| | | | - Norton R D L P Rossi
- Federal University of Rondônia - UNIR, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - Rondônia - FIOCRUZ/RO, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
| | | | - Amália S Ferreira
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - Rondônia - FIOCRUZ/RO, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
| | - Guilherme M Passarini
- Federal University of Rondônia - UNIR, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - Rondônia - FIOCRUZ/RO, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
| | - Ana F G Garay
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - Rondônia - FIOCRUZ/RO, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
- Centro para el Desarrollo de la Investigación Científica - CEDIC, Asunción, Paraguay
| | - Jorge J Alfonso
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - Rondônia - FIOCRUZ/RO, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
- Centro para el Desarrollo de la Investigación Científica - CEDIC, Asunción, Paraguay
| | - Andreimar M Soares
- Federal University of Rondônia - UNIR, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - Rondônia - FIOCRUZ/RO, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
- Rede de Biodiversidade e Biotecnologia da Amazônia Legal - BIONORTE, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
- National Institute of Science and Technology of Epidemiology in the Western Amazon - INCT-EpiAmO, Rondônia, Brazil
| | - Fernando B Zanchi
- Federal University of Rondônia - UNIR, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - Rondônia - FIOCRUZ/RO, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
- Rede de Biodiversidade e Biotecnologia da Amazônia Legal - BIONORTE, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
| | - Massuo J Kato
- Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo - USP, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Carolina B G Teles
- Federal University of Rondônia - UNIR, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz - Rondônia - FIOCRUZ/RO, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
- Rede de Biodiversidade e Biotecnologia da Amazônia Legal - BIONORTE, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
- National Institute of Science and Technology of Epidemiology in the Western Amazon - INCT-EpiAmO, Rondônia, Brazil
| | - Christian C Kuehn
- Federal University of Rondônia - UNIR, Porto Velho, Rondônia, Brazil
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10
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Souza THS, Andrade CG, Cabral FV, Sarmento-Neto JF, Rebouças JS, Santos BS, Ribeiro MS, Figueiredo RCBQ, Fontes A. Efficient photodynamic inactivation of Leishmania parasites mediated by lipophilic water-soluble Zn(II) porphyrin ZnTnHex-2-PyP 4. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2021; 1865:129897. [PMID: 33811942 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2021.129897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Photodynamic inactivation (PDI) is emerging as a promising alternative for cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL). The chemotherapy currently used presents adverse effects and cases of drug resistance have been reported. ZnTnHex-2-PyP4+ is a porphyrin with a high potential as a photosensitizer (PS) for PDI, due to its photophysical properties, structural stability, and cationic/amphiphilic character that can enhance interaction with cells. This study aimed to investigate the photodynamic effects mediated by ZnTnHex-2-PyP4+ on Leishmania parasites. METHODS ZnTnHex-2-PyP4+ stability was evaluated using accelerated solvolysis conditions. The photodynamic action on promastigotes was assessed by (i) viability assays, (ii) mitochondrial membrane potential evaluation, and (iii) morphological analysis. The PS-promastigote interaction was studied. PDI on amastigotes and the cytotoxicity on macrophages were also analyzed. RESULTS ZnTnHex-2-PyP4+, under submicromolar concentration, led to immediate inactivation of more than 95% of promastigotes. PDI promoted intense mitochondrial depolarization, loss of the fusiform shape, and plasma membrane wrinkling in promastigotes. Fluorescence microscopy revealed a punctate PS labeling in the parasite cytoplasm. PDI also led to reductions of ca. 64% in the number of amastigotes/macrophage and 70% in the infection index after a single treatment session. No noteworthy toxicity was observed on mammalian cells. CONCLUSIONS ZnTnHex-2-PyP4+ is stable against demetallation and more efficient as PS than the ethyl analogue ZnTE-2-PyP4+, indicating readiness for evaluation in in vivo studies as an alternative approach to CL. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE This report highlighted promising photodynamic effects mediated by ZnTnHex-2-PyP4+ on Leishmania parasites, opening up perspectives for applications in CL pre-clinical assays and PDI of other microorganisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago H S Souza
- Departamento de Biofísica e Radiobiologia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil; Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Camila G Andrade
- Departamento de Biofísica e Radiobiologia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Fernanda V Cabral
- Centro de Lasers e Aplicações, Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares (IPEN-CNEN/SP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - José F Sarmento-Neto
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - Júlio S Rebouças
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - Beate S Santos
- Departamento de Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Martha S Ribeiro
- Centro de Lasers e Aplicações, Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares (IPEN-CNEN/SP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Regina C B Q Figueiredo
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto Aggeu Magalhães- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Adriana Fontes
- Departamento de Biofísica e Radiobiologia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, PE, Brazil.
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Pramanik PK, Chakraborti S, Bagchi A, Chakraborti T. Bioassay-based Corchorus capsularis L. leaf-derived β-sitosterol exerts antileishmanial effects against Leishmania donovani by targeting trypanothione reductase. Sci Rep 2020; 10:20440. [PMID: 33235245 PMCID: PMC7686382 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-77066-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmaniasis, a major neglected tropical disease, affects millions of individuals worldwide. Among the various clinical forms, visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is the deadliest. Current antileishmanial drugs exhibit toxicity- and resistance-related issues. Therefore, advanced chemotherapeutic alternatives are in demand, and currently, plant sources are considered preferable choices. Our previous report has shown that the chloroform extract of Corchorus capsularis L. leaves exhibits a significant effect against Leishmania donovani promastigotes. In the current study, bioassay-guided fractionation results for Corchorus capsularis L. leaf-derived β-sitosterol (β-sitosterolCCL) were observed by spectroscopic analysis (FTIR, 1H NMR, 13C NMR and GC–MS). The inhibitory efficacy of this β-sitosterolCCL against L. donovani promastigotes was measured (IC50 = 17.7 ± 0.43 µg/ml). β-SitosterolCCL significantly disrupts the redox balance via intracellular ROS production, which triggers various apoptotic events, such as structural alteration, increased storage of lipid bodies, mitochondrial membrane depolarization, externalization of phosphatidylserine and non-protein thiol depletion, in promastigotes. Additionally, the antileishmanial activity of β-sitosterolCCL was validated by enzyme inhibition and an in silico study in which β-sitosterolCCL was found to inhibit Leishmania donovani trypanothione reductase (LdTryR). Overall, β-sitosterolCCL appears to be a novel inhibitor of LdTryR and might represent a successful approach for treatment of VL in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pijush Kanti Pramanik
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, 741235, West Bengal, India
| | - Sajal Chakraborti
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, 741235, West Bengal, India
| | - Angshuman Bagchi
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, 741235, West Bengal, India
| | - Tapati Chakraborti
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, 741235, West Bengal, India.
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de Paula JC, Bakoshi ABK, Lazarin-Bidóia D, Ud Din Z, Rodrigues-Filho E, Ueda-Nakamura T, Nakamura CV. Antiproliferative activity of the dibenzylideneacetone derivate (E)-3-ethyl-4-(4-nitrophenyl)but‑3-en-2-one in Trypanosoma cruzi. Acta Trop 2020; 211:105653. [PMID: 32777226 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Revised: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Chagas disease is one of the most prevalent neglected diseases in the world. The illness is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, a protozoan parasite with a complex life cycle and three morphologically distinct developmental stages. Nowadays, the only treatment is based on two nitro-derivative drugs, benznidazole and nifurtimox, which cause serious side effects. Since the treatment is limited, the search for new treatment options for patients with Chagas disease is highly necessary. In this study we analyzed the substance A11K3, a dibenzylideneacetone (DBA). DBAs have an acyclic dienone attached to aryl groups in both β-positions and studies have shown that they have biological activity against tumors cells, bacteria, and protozoa such as T. cruzi and Leishmania spp. Here we show that A11K3 is active against all three T. cruzi evolutionary forms: the epimastigote (IC50 = 3.3 ± 0.8), the trypomastigote (EC50 = 24 ± 4.3) and the intracellular amastigote (IC50 = 9.3 ± 0.5 µM). A cytotoxicity assay in LLCMK2 cells showed a CC50 of 239.2 ± 15.7 µM giving a selectivity index (CC50/IC50) of 72.7 for epimastigotes, 9.9 for trypomastigotes and 25.9 for intracellular amastigotes. Morphological and ultrastructural analysis of the parasites treated with A11K3 by TEM and SEM revealed alterations in the Golgi complex, mitochondria, plasma membrane and cell body, with an increase of autophagic vacuoles and lipid bodies. Biochemical assays of A11K3-treated T. cruzi showed an increase of ROS, plasma membrane ruptures, lipid peroxidation, mitochondrial membrane depolarization with a decrease in ATP and accumulation of autophagic vacuoles. The results lead to the hypothesis that A11K3 causes death of the protozoan through events such as plasma membrane and mitochondrial alterations and autophagy, characteristic of cell collapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jéssica Carreira de Paula
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Inovação Tecnológica no Desenvolvimento de Fármacos e Cosméticos, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Bloco B-08, Av. Colombo 5790, Maringá, PR CEP 87020-900, Brazil
| | - Amanda Beatriz Kawano Bakoshi
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Inovação Tecnológica no Desenvolvimento de Fármacos e Cosméticos, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Bloco B-08, Av. Colombo 5790, Maringá, PR CEP 87020-900, Brazil
| | - Danielle Lazarin-Bidóia
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Inovação Tecnológica no Desenvolvimento de Fármacos e Cosméticos, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Bloco B-08, Av. Colombo 5790, Maringá, PR CEP 87020-900, Brazil
| | - Zia Ud Din
- LaBioMMi, Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, CP 676, São Carlos, SP 13.565-905, Brazil
| | - Edson Rodrigues-Filho
- LaBioMMi, Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, CP 676, São Carlos, SP 13.565-905, Brazil
| | - Tania Ueda-Nakamura
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Inovação Tecnológica no Desenvolvimento de Fármacos e Cosméticos, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Bloco B-08, Av. Colombo 5790, Maringá, PR CEP 87020-900, Brazil
| | - Celso Vataru Nakamura
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Biológicas, Laboratório de Inovação Tecnológica no Desenvolvimento de Fármacos e Cosméticos, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Bloco B-08, Av. Colombo 5790, Maringá, PR CEP 87020-900, Brazil.
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Ferreira FBP, Herculano Ramos-Milaré ÁCF, Gonçalves JE, Lazarin-Bidóia D, Nakamura CV, Sugauara RR, Fernandez CMM, Gazim ZC, Demarchi IG, Silveira TGV, Lonardoni MVC. Campomanesia xanthocarpa (Mart.) O. Berg essential oil induces antileishmanial activity and remodeling of the cytoplasm organelles. Nat Prod Res 2020; 35:6112-6116. [PMID: 32998582 DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2020.1827401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a neglected disease that affects millions of people worldwide. This study aimed to analyze antileishmanial activity of Campomanesia xanthocarpa leaf essential oil (EO) on promastigote and amastigote forms of Leishmania amazonensis, cytotoxicity in murine macrophages and sheep erythrocytes. The essential oil (EO) was analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrophotometry. The main and most abundant compounds were sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (71.22%) such as trans-caryophyllene (7.87%), bicyclogermacrene (11.28%), and δ-cadinene (8.34%). The IC50 for promastigote and amastigote forms of L. amazonensis was 70 µg mL-1 and 6 µg mL-1, respectively. C. xanthocarpa EO was not cytotoxic for murine macrophages (CC50 1860 µg mL-1) and sheep erythrocytes (1.5%), presenting high selectivity index for protozoan (310). C. xanthocarpa EO induced effects on the morphology and ultrastructure of this parasite. The high activity for intracellular amastigote forms, low toxicity to murine macrophages, and erythrocytes, suggest that C. xanthocarpa EO is promising for the treatment of leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - José Eduardo Gonçalves
- Posgraduate in Clean Technologies, UniCesumar, Maringá, Paraná State, Brazil.,Cesumar Instituto de Ciências, Tecnologia e Inovação - ICETI, Maringá, Paraná State, Brazil
| | - Danielle Lazarin-Bidóia
- Laboratory of Innovation in Development of Medicines and Cosmetics, Department of Health Sciences, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Maringá, Paraná State, Brazil
| | - Celso Vataru Nakamura
- Laboratory of Innovation in Development of Medicines and Cosmetics, Department of Health Sciences, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Maringá, Paraná State, Brazil
| | - Rosangela Rumi Sugauara
- Posgraduate in Biotechnology Applied to Agriculture, Universidade Paranaense, Umuarama, Paraná State, Brazil
| | | | - Zilda Cristiani Gazim
- Posgraduate in Biotechnology Applied to Agriculture, Universidade Paranaense, Umuarama, Paraná State, Brazil
| | | | - Thaís Gomes Verzignassi Silveira
- Posgraduate Program in Health Sciences, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Maringá, Paraná State, Brazil.,Department of Clinical Analysis and Biomedicine, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Maringá, Paraná State, Brazil
| | - Maria Valdrinez Campana Lonardoni
- Posgraduate Program in Health Sciences, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Maringá, Paraná State, Brazil.,Department of Clinical Analysis and Biomedicine, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Maringá, Paraná State, Brazil
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Rodríguez-Hernández KD, Martínez I, Reyes-Chilpa R, Espinoza B. Mammea type coumarins isolated from Calophyllum brasiliense induced apoptotic cell death of Trypanosoma cruzi through mitochondrial dysfunction, ROS production and cell cycle alterations. Bioorg Chem 2020; 100:103894. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2020.103894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Wanderley JLM, DaMatta RA, Barcinski MA. Apoptotic mimicry as a strategy for the establishment of parasitic infections: parasite- and host-derived phosphatidylserine as key molecule. Cell Commun Signal 2020; 18:10. [PMID: 31941500 PMCID: PMC6964003 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-019-0482-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The establishment of parasitic infection is dependent on the development of efficient strategies to evade the host defense mechanisms. Phosphatidylserine (PS) molecules are pivotal for apoptotic cell recognition and clearance by professional phagocytes. Moreover, PS receptors are able to trigger anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive responses by phagocytes, either by coupled enzymes or through the induction of regulatory cytokine secretion. These PS-dependent events are exploited by parasites in a mechanism called apoptotic mimicry. Generally, apoptotic mimicry refers to the effects of PS recognition for the initiation and maintenance of pathogenic infections. However, in this context, PS molecules can be recognized on the surface of the infectious agent or in the surface of apoptotic host debris, leading to the respective denomination of classical and non-classical apoptotic mimicry. In this review, we discuss the role of PS in the pathogenesis of several human infections caused by protozoan parasites. Video Abstract
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Affiliation(s)
- João Luiz Mendes Wanderley
- Laboratório de Imunoparasitologia, Campus UFRJ Macaé, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
| | - Renato Augusto DaMatta
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Tecidual, Centro de Biociências e Biotecnologia, Universidade Estadual Norte-Fluminense, Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brazil
| | - Marcello André Barcinski
- Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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Entomopathogenic bacteria Photorhabdus luminescens as drug source against Leishmania amazonensis. Parasitology 2017; 145:1065-1074. [PMID: 29157317 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182017002001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Leishmaniasis is a widely spread and zoonotic disease with serious problems as low effectiveness of drugs, emergence of parasite resistance and severe adverse reactions. In recent years, considerable attention has been given to secondary metabolites produced by Photorhabdus luminescens, an entomopathogenic bacterium. Here, we assessed the leishmanicidal activity of P. luminescens culture fluids. Initially, promastigotes of Leishmania amazonensis were incubated with cell free conditioned medium of P. luminescens and parasite survival was monitored. Different pre-treatments of the conditioned medium revealed that the leishmanicidal activity is due to a secreted peptide smaller than 3 kDa. The Photorhabdus-derived leishmanicidal toxin (PLT) was enriched from conditioned medium and its effect on mitochondrial membrane potential of promastigotes, was determined. Moreover, the biological activity of PLT against amastigotes was evaluated. PLT inhibited the parasite growth and showed significant leishmanicidal activity against promastigote and amastigotes of L. amazonensis. PLT also caused mitochondrial dysfunction in parasites, but low toxicity to mammalian cell and human erythrocytes. Moreover, the anti-amastigote activity was independent of nitric oxide production. In summary, our results highlight that P. luminescens secretes Leishmania-toxic peptide(s) that are promising novel drugs for therapy against leishmaniasis.
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Acyclic Sesquiterpenes from the Fruit Pericarp of Sapindus saponaria Induce Ultrastructural Alterations and Cell Death in Leishmania amazonensis. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2017; 2017:5620693. [PMID: 28904555 PMCID: PMC5585602 DOI: 10.1155/2017/5620693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2017] [Revised: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies reported antiprotozoal activities of Sapindus saponaria L. The aim of this work was the evaluation of antileishmanial activity and mechanism of action of extract and fractions of S. saponaria L. Hydroethanolic extract (EHA) obtained from fruit pericarps was fractionated using solid-phase extraction in a reversed phase, resulting in fractions enriched with saponins (SAP fraction) and acyclic sesquiterpene oligoglycosides (OGSA fraction). The activities of EHA, SAP, and OGSA were evaluated by antiproliferative assays with promastigote and intracellular amastigote forms. Cytotoxicity on macrophages and hemolytic activity were also analyzed. Morphological and ultrastructural changes in Leishmania amazonensis promastigotes were evaluated by electron microscopy. Flow cytometry was used to investigate mitochondrial dysfunction and phosphatidylserine exposure. OGSA was more selective for parasites than mammalian J774A1 macrophage cells, with selectivity indices of 3.79 and 7.35, respectively. Our results showed that only the OGSA fraction did not present hemolytic activity at its IC50 for promastigote growth. Electron microscopy revealed changes in parasite flagellum, cell body shape, and organelle size, mainly mitochondria. Flow cytometry analysis indicated mitochondrial membrane and cell membrane dysfunction. OGSA showed antileishmanial activity, resulting in several changes to protozoa cells, including mitochondrial depolarization and early phosphatidylserine exposure, suggesting a possible apoptotic induction.
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