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Chen N, Nakamura K, Watanabe K. An automatic red-female association tested by the Stroop task. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2023; 238:103982. [PMID: 37478774 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.103982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Colors have been reported to be associated with genders (e.g., reddish color-females). Here, we investigated color-gender associations (red-female/green-male) among Japanese participants using two Stroop-word categorization tasks. Ten Japanese gendered words were chosen as visual stimuli. In Experiment 1 (N = 23), participants were instructed to indicate whether a target word presented in either red, green, or gray font color was a masculine or feminine word. Results showed a congruency effect of red-female association that red font color facilitated the categorization of feminine words and inhibited the categorization of masculine words compared to other colors. No significant effect of green-male association was observed. Experiment 2 (N = 23 newly recruited participants) examined whether the congruency effect of color-gender associations could bias perceptual font color categorization. Participants were asked to discriminate whether the font color, with low saturation, was red or green while ignoring the word's meaning. Results showed that participants responded faster and made fewer errors when categorizing red font colors for feminine words than masculine words. Additionally, a congruent effect of green-male association on performance accuracy was observed, although it did not affect response times. These results indicate the existence of an automatically activated red-female association, which can influence both conceptual gender categorization and perceptual color processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Chen
- The Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel.
| | - Koyo Nakamura
- Faculty of Psychology, Department of Cognition, Emotion, Methods in Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna 1010, Austria; Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo 102-0083, Japan; Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo 169-8555, Japan
| | - Katsumi Watanabe
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo 169-8555, Japan
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Chen N, Nakamura K, Watanabe K. Red background color biases gender categorization of human faces. Sci Rep 2023; 13:7792. [PMID: 37179368 PMCID: PMC10182973 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-34644-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Color carries gender information (e.g., red-female). This study explored whether background color could influence the gender categorization of human faces. Visual stimuli were generated from faces whose sexually dimorphic content was morphed monotonically from female to male perception. The face stimulus was presented upright (Experiment 1) and inverted (Experiment 2) with three background colors (i.e., red, green, and gray). Participants were instructed to categorize the gender of the face stimulus as male or female by pressing one of two labelled keys. Results showed that a red background could bias the gender of an ambiguous upright face toward a female compared with green and gray background colors (Experiment 1). However, this red effect was diminished when the face stimulus was inverted (Experiment 2). These results suggest that red background color interacting with facial configuration features biases gender perception toward a female face, possibly through top-down processing of learned associations between the color red and femininity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Chen
- The Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, 5290002, Ramat Gan, Israel.
| | - Koyo Nakamura
- Faculty of Psychology, Department of Cognition, Emotion, Methods in Psychology, University of Vienna, 1010, Vienna, Austria
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, 102-0083, Japan
| | - Katsumi Watanabe
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, 169-8555, Japan
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Santos J, Andrade E, Benevides K, Silva K, Nascimento J, Bittencourt I, Pereira M, Fernandes S, Isotani S. Does gender stereotype threat affects the levels of aggressiveness, learning and flow in gamified learning environments?: An experimental study. EDUCATION AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES 2023; 28:1637-1662. [PMID: 35935900 PMCID: PMC9340726 DOI: 10.1007/s10639-022-11220-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/03/2022] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Studies in the literature reported several positive benefits provided by the use of technology in online education, especially in the gamified tutoring system. However, despite the benefits of intelligent tutoring systems, recent studies indicate the presence of a gender gap not considered in the construction of the attributes present in the gamified tutoring system. To investigate this impact by observing users' behavioral changes in gamified online educational environments, the present study aims to investigate the effects of the stereotype threats using a quantitative experiment with a Factorial Design in three gamified environments (stereotypical male version, stereotypical female version and control environment). Was conducted an experiment with 150 individuals (high school and undergraduate students) without considering age, ethnicity, or social class. The results show that the participants allocated to the male learning environment present an increase in aggressiveness level. Furthermore, the results also show the stereotypical male and female learning environments increased the participants' performance level. Another finding was that the threatening condition provided a significant increase in the participants' flow level among males subjected to a threatening condition, which did not manifest in the case of females. In addition, this study also observed the effect of the stereotype threat on men and women in the threatening condition by division in the 34-year age group, resulting in a significant increase in the level of flow among men. This study showed previous results show that the gamified environment influences psychological variables as aggressiveness, intellectual performance, and flow level, they raise questions about the direction of these changes and the impact they may have on users' usability and performance in these systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jário Santos
- Institute of Mathematics and Computational Sciences, University of São Paulo (USP), Avenida Trabalhador São-Carlense, 400 Centro, 13566-590 São Carlos, SP Brazil
| | - Ester Andrade
- Computing Institute, Federal University of Alagoas (UFAL), Campus A.C. Simões, Cidade Universitária, 57072-970 Maceió, AL Brazil
| | - Kamila Benevides
- Computing Institute, Federal University of Alagoas (UFAL), Campus A.C. Simões, Cidade Universitária, 57072-970 Maceió, AL Brazil
| | - Kelly Silva
- Computing Institute, Federal University of Alagoas (UFAL), Campus A.C. Simões, Cidade Universitária, 57072-970 Maceió, AL Brazil
| | - João Nascimento
- Institute of Psychology, Federal University of Alagoas (UFAL), Campus A.C. Simões, Cidade Universitária, 57072-970 Maceió, AL Brazil
| | - Ig Bittencourt
- Computing Institute, Federal University of Alagoas (UFAL), Campus A.C. Simões, Cidade Universitária, 57072-970 Maceió, AL Brazil
- Institute of Psychology, Federal University of Alagoas (UFAL), Campus A.C. Simões, Cidade Universitária, 57072-970 Maceió, AL Brazil
| | - Marcos Pereira
- Institute of Psychology, Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Campus Universitário, São Lãzaro, Salvador, BA 41940-220 Brazil
| | - Sheyla Fernandes
- Institute of Psychology, Federal University of Alagoas (UFAL), Campus A.C. Simões, Cidade Universitária, 57072-970 Maceió, AL Brazil
| | - Seiji Isotani
- Institute of Mathematics and Computational Sciences, University of São Paulo (USP), Avenida Trabalhador São-Carlense, 400 Centro, 13566-590 São Carlos, SP Brazil
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Endendijk JJ, Groeneveld MG, Mesman J. The Gendered Family Process Model: An Integrative Framework of Gender in the Family. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2018; 47:877-904. [PMID: 29549542 PMCID: PMC5891573 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-018-1185-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2015] [Revised: 02/27/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2018] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
This article reviews and integrates research on gender-related biological, cognitive, and social processes that take place in or between family members, resulting in a newly developed gendered family process (GFP) model. The GFP model serves as a guiding framework for research on gender in the family context, calling for the integration of biological, social, and cognitive factors. Biological factors in the model are prenatal, postnatal, and pubertal androgen levels of children and parents, and genetic effects on parent and child gendered behavior. Social factors are family sex composition (i.e., parent sex, sexual orientation, marriage status, sibling sex composition) and parental gender socialization, such as modeling, gender-differentiated parenting, and gender talk. Cognitive factors are implicit and explicit gender-role cognitions of parents and children. Our review and the GFP model confirm that gender is an important organizer of family processes, but also highlight that much is still unclear about the mechanisms underlying gender-related processes within the family context. Therefore, we stress the need for (1) longitudinal studies that take into account the complex bidirectional relationship between parent and child gendered behavior and cognitions, in which within-family comparisons (comparing behavior of parents toward a boy and a girl in the same family) are made instead of between-family comparisons (comparing parenting between all-boy families and all-girl families, or between mixed-gender families and same-gender families), (2) experimental studies on the influence of testosterone on human gender development, (3) studies examining the interplay between biology with gender socialization and gender-role cognitions in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joyce J Endendijk
- Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, 2300 RB, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Child and Adolescent Studies, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80140, 3508 TC, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Marleen G Groeneveld
- Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, 2300 RB, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Judi Mesman
- Centre for Child and Family Studies, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9555, 2300 RB, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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Yeung SP, Wong WI. Gender Labels on Gender-Neutral Colors: Do they Affect Children’s Color Preferences and Play Performance? SEX ROLES 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-017-0875-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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González Conde D, Sueiro Domínguez E. Uso del color en la infancia. REVISTA DE ESTUDIOS E INVESTIGACIÓN EN PSICOLOGÍA Y EDUCACIÓN 2017. [DOI: 10.17979/reipe.2017.0.04.2596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
En las preferencias de colores que tienen los niños y las niñas pueden percibirse estereotipos de género, responsables de la diferenciación entre colores masculinos, femeninos y neutros. Así lo demuestran los resultados obtenidos en dos investigaciones llevadas a cabo en las etapas de Educación Infantil y Primaria acerca del uso de los colores en la infancia. De ambas investigaciones se hablará en el presente trabajo, así como también de todo lo referente al color y a los procesos de percepción y concepción de los colores en la infancia, entre los cuatro y los siete años de edad.
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Mulvey KL, Miller B, Rizzardi V. Gender and engineering aptitude: Is the color of science, technology, engineering, and math materials related to children’s performance? J Exp Child Psychol 2017; 160:119-126. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2017.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2017] [Revised: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Kaspar K, Grümmer M, Kießler A, Neuß C, Schröter F. The effects of colour and valence on news evaluation. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2015; 52:491-498. [PMID: 26564860 DOI: 10.1002/ijop.12234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Research across different fields of psychology has reported effects of colour cues on a variety of cognitive processes. Especially, the colour red has been shown to have striking influences. In the context of media reception, however, colour effects have been widely neglected so far. This study made a first step in this direction by investigating the effects of the colour red (compared with blue and grey) on the way news articles are evaluated. Two types of news were framed by a coloured border while the valence of the news content additionally varied. Based on 369 participants who read and evaluated the news articles online, we observed effects for colour cues and news valence in the absence of an interaction effect, indicating that the colour red induced approach motivation. However, only the contrast between red and grey reached statistical significance, indicating that chromatic and achromatic colours may differ in their perceived visual saliency. Overall, these results provide an important complement to previous studies and have practical implications for media researchers and producers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Kaspar
- Department of Psychology, University of Cologne, Germany
| | | | - Antje Kießler
- Department of Psychology, University of Cologne, Germany
| | - Celina Neuß
- Department of Psychology, University of Cologne, Germany
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Gnambs T, Appel M, Kaspar K. The effect of the color red on encoding and retrieval of declarative knowledge. LEARNING AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lindif.2015.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Wong WI, Hines M. Preferences for Pink and Blue: The Development of Color Preferences as a Distinct Gender-Typed Behavior in Toddlers. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2015; 44:1243-54. [PMID: 25680819 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-015-0489-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Revised: 08/27/2014] [Accepted: 10/17/2014] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Many gender differences are thought to result from interactions between inborn factors and sociocognitive processes that occur after birth. There is controversy, however, over the causes of gender-typed preferences for the colors pink and blue, with some viewing these preferences as arising solely from sociocognitive processes of gender development. We evaluated preferences for gender-typed colors, and compared them to gender-typed toy and activity preferences in 126 toddlers on two occasions separated by 6-8 months (at Time 1, M = 29 months; range 20-40). Color preferences were assessed using color cards and neutral toys in gender-typed colors. Gender-typed toy and activity preferences were assessed using a parent-report questionnaire, the Preschool Activities Inventory. Color preferences were also assessed for the toddlers' parents using color cards. A gender difference in color preferences was present between 2 and 3 years of age and strengthened near the third birthday, at which time it was large (d > 1). In contrast to their parents, toddlers' gender-typed color preferences were stronger and unstable. Gender-typed color preferences also appeared to establish later and were less stable than gender-typed toy and activity preferences. Gender-typed color preferences were largely uncorrelated with gender-typed toy and activity preferences. These results suggest that the factors influencing gender-typed color preferences and gender-typed toy and activity preferences differ in some respects. Our findings suggest that sociocognitive influences and play with gender-typed toys that happen to be made in gender-typed colors contribute to toddlers' gender-typed color preferences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wang I Wong
- Department of Psychology, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong,
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Del Giudice M. The twentieth century reversal of pink-blue gender coding: a scientific urban legend? ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2012; 41:1321-1323. [PMID: 22821170 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-012-0002-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
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