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Application of Real and Virtual Radial Arm Maze Task in Human. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12040468. [PMID: 35447999 PMCID: PMC9027137 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12040468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Revised: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Virtual Reality (VR) emerges as a promising technology capable of creating different scenarios in which the body, environment, and brain are closely related, proving enhancements in the diagnosis and treatment of several spatial memory deficits. In recent years, human spatial navigation has increasingly been studied in interactive virtual environments. However, navigational tasks are still not completely adapted in immersive 3D VR systems. We stipulate that an immersive Radial Arm Maze (RAM) is an excellent instrument, allowing the participants to be physically active within the maze exactly as in the walking RAM version in reality modality. RAM is a behavioral ecological task that allows the analyses of different facets of spatial memory, distinguishing declarative components from procedural ones. In addition to describing the characteristics of RAM, we will also analyze studies in which RAM has been used in virtual modality to provide suggestions into RAM building in immersive modality.
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Somma F, Bartolomeo P, Vallone F, Argiuolo A, Cerrato A, Miglino O, Mandolesi L, Zurlo MC, Gigliotta O. Further to the Left: Stress-Induced Increase of Spatial Pseudoneglect During the COVID-19 Lockdown. Front Psychol 2021; 12:573846. [PMID: 33746815 PMCID: PMC7977289 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.573846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The measures taken to contain the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, such as the lockdown in Italy, do impact psychological health; yet, less is known about their effect on cognitive functioning. The transactional theory of stress predicts reciprocal influences between perceived stress and cognitive performance. However, the effects of a period of stress due to social isolation on spatial cognition and exploration have been little examined. The aim of the present study was to investigate the possible effects and impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on spatial cognition tasks, particularly those concerning spatial exploration, and the physiological leftward bias known as pseudoneglect. A right-hemisphere asymmetry for spatial attention processes crucially contributes to pseudoneglect. Other evidence indicates a predominantly right-hemisphere activity in stressful situations. We also analyzed the effects of lockdown on coping strategies, which typically show an opposite pattern of hemispheric asymmetry, favoring the left hemisphere. If so, then pseudoneglect should increase during the lockdown and be negatively correlated with the efficacy of coping strategies. METHODS One week before the start of the lockdown due to COVID-19 in Italy (T1), we had collected data from a battery of behavioral tests including tasks of peri-personal spatial cognition. During the quarantine period, from late April to early May 2020 (T2), we repeated the testing sessions with a subgroup of the same participants (47 right-handed students, mean age = 20, SD = 1.33). At both testing sessions, participants performed digitized neuropsychological tests, including a Cancellation task, Radial Arm Maze task, and Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices. Participants also completed a newly developed COVID-19 Student Stress Scale, based on transactional models of stress, and the Coping Orientation to Problems Experienced-New Italian Version (COPE-NIV) to assess coping orientation. RESULTS The tendency to start cancelation from a left-sided item, to explore first a left-sided arm of the maze, and to choose erroneous response items on the left side of the page on Raven's matrices increased from T1 to T2. The degree of pseudoneglect increment positively correlated with perceived stress and negatively correlated with Positive Attitude and Problem-Solving COPE-NIV subscales. CONCLUSION Lockdown-related stress may have contributed to increase leftward bias during quarantine through a greater activation of the right hemisphere. On the other hand, pseudoneglect was decreased for better coping participants, perhaps as a consequence of a more balanced hemispheric activity in these individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Somma
- Natural and Artificial Cognition Laboratory, Department of Humanities, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Paolo Bartolomeo
- Sorbonne Université, Inserm U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Paris Brain Institute, ICM, Hôpital de la Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Federica Vallone
- Dynamic Psychology Laboratory, Department of Political Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
- Department of Humanities, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Antonietta Argiuolo
- Natural and Artificial Cognition Laboratory, Department of Humanities, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Antonio Cerrato
- Natural and Artificial Cognition Laboratory, Department of Humanities, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Orazio Miglino
- Natural and Artificial Cognition Laboratory, Department of Humanities, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
- Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies, National Research Council, Rome, Italy
| | - Laura Mandolesi
- Department of Humanities, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Maria Clelia Zurlo
- Dynamic Psychology Laboratory, Department of Political Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Onofrio Gigliotta
- Natural and Artificial Cognition Laboratory, Department of Humanities, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
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Chevalère J, Jauregi J, Copet P, Laurier V, Thuilleaux D, Postal V. Investigation of the relationship between electrodermal and behavioural responses to executive tasks in Prader-Willi syndrome: An event-related experiment. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2019; 85:229-242. [PMID: 30590308 DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2018.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2018] [Revised: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent work suggests that maladaptive behaviors in genetic developmental disorders may emerge from autonomic dysfunctions impacting higher order executive functions. In Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS), executive functions are not well understood and investigations of possible underlying causes at the autonomic level are lacking. AIMS This study aimed at clarifying the status of inhibition and working memory updating functions in PWS and searched for sympathetic signatures as well as to examine their links with executive performance. METHODS AND PROCEDURES The performance of thirty adults with PWS was compared to that of thirty healthy adults on two tasks assessing inhibition and working memory updating while electrodermal activity (EDA) was recorded. OUTCOMES AND RESULTS PWS adults underperformed healthy adults in the inhibition and the working memory updating tasks and showed abnormal skin conductance responses. Distinct EDA have been found in PWS and healthy adults. Furthermore, while EDA reflected distinct cognitive processes, correlations between electrodermal and behavioural data were absent when examining the two groups separately. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS PWS is associated with a slight impairment of inhibition and a severe impairment of working memory updating. Furthermore, there are specific sympathetic autonomic signatures in PWS that do not present straightforward links with executive dysfunctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Chevalère
- Univ. Bordeaux, Laboratoire de Psychologie, EA 4139, F33076, Bordeaux, France.
| | - J Jauregi
- Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, Paseo de Arriola 2, 20018, San Sebastián, Spain; AP-HP Hôpital Marin, BP 40139, 64700, Hendaye, France.
| | - P Copet
- AP-HP Hôpital Marin, BP 40139, 64700, Hendaye, France.
| | - V Laurier
- AP-HP Hôpital Marin, BP 40139, 64700, Hendaye, France.
| | - D Thuilleaux
- AP-HP Hôpital Marin, BP 40139, 64700, Hendaye, France.
| | - V Postal
- Univ. Bordeaux, Laboratoire de Psychologie, EA 4139, F33076, Bordeaux, France.
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Foti F, Menghini D, Alfieri P, Costanzo F, Mandolesi L, Petrosini L, Vicari S. Learning by observation and learning by doing in Down and Williams syndromes. Dev Sci 2017; 21:e12642. [PMID: 29280247 DOI: 10.1111/desc.12642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
New skills may be learned by active experience (experiential learning or learning by doing) or by observation of others' experience (learning by observation). In general, learning by observation reduces the time and the attempts needed to learn complex actions and behaviors. The present research aimed to compare learning by observation and learning by doing in two clinical populations with different etiology of intellectual disability (ID), as individuals with Down syndrome (DS) and individuals with Williams syndrome (WS), with the hypothesis that specific profiles of learning may be found in each syndrome. To this end, we used a mixture of new and existing data to compare the performances of 24 individuals with DS, 24 individuals with WS and 24 typically developing children on computerized tasks of learning by observation or learning by doing. The main result was that the two groups with ID exhibited distinct patterns of learning by observation. Thus, individuals with DS were impaired in reproducing the previously observed visuo-motor sequence, while they were as efficient as TD children in the experiential learning task. On the other hand, individuals with WS benefited from the observational training while they were severely impaired in detecting the visuo-motor sequence in the experiential learning task (when presented first). The present findings reinforce the syndrome-specific hypothesis and the view of ID as a variety of conditions in which some cognitive functions are more disrupted than others because of the differences in genetic profile and brain morphology and functionality. These findings have important implications for clinicians, who should take into account the genetic etiology of ID in developing learning programs for treatment and education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Foti
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, Magna Graecia University of Catanzaro, Catanzaro, Italy.,Department of Psychology, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.,IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Deny Menghini
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Neuroscience Department, Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù, Rome, Italy
| | - Paolo Alfieri
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Neuroscience Department, Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù, Rome, Italy
| | - Floriana Costanzo
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Neuroscience Department, Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù, Rome, Italy
| | - Laura Mandolesi
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy.,Department of Motor Science and Wellness, University Parthenope, Naples, Italy
| | - Laura Petrosini
- Department of Psychology, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy.,IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Stefano Vicari
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Neuroscience Department, Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù, Rome, Italy
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Foti F, Menghini D, Petrosini L, Vicari S, Valerio G, Orlandi E, Crinò A, Spera S, De Bartolo P, Mandolesi L. Explorative function in Prader-Willi syndrome analyzed through an ecological spatial task. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2015; 38:97-107. [PMID: 25575283 DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2014.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2014] [Accepted: 11/28/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
This study was aimed at evaluating the spatial abilities in individuals with Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) by using an ecological large-scale task with multiple rewards. To evaluate the extent of spatial deficit in PWS individuals, we compare their performances with those of individuals with Williams Syndrome (WS) in which the spatial deficits have been widely described. Participants had to explore an open space to search nine rewards placed in buckets arranged according to three spatial configurations: a Cross, a 3×3 Matrix and a Cluster composed by three groups of three buckets each. PWS individuals exhibited an explorative deficit in Cluster and Cross configurations, while WS participants in Matrix and Cross configurations. The findings indicate that the structural affordances of the environment influence the explorative strategies and can be related to how spatial information is processed.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Foti
- Department of Psychology, University "Sapienza", Via dei Marsi 78, 00185 Rome, Italy; IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation (CERC), Via del Fosso di Fiorano 65, 00143 Rome, Italy
| | - D Menghini
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, "Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù", Piazza Sant'Onofrio 4, 00165 Rome, Italy
| | - L Petrosini
- Department of Psychology, University "Sapienza", Via dei Marsi 78, 00185 Rome, Italy; IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation (CERC), Via del Fosso di Fiorano 65, 00143 Rome, Italy
| | - S Vicari
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, "Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù", Piazza Sant'Onofrio 4, 00165 Rome, Italy
| | - G Valerio
- Department of Motor Science and Wellness, University "Parthenope", Via Medina 40, 80133 Naples, Italy
| | - E Orlandi
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, "Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù", Piazza Sant'Onofrio 4, 00165 Rome, Italy
| | - A Crinò
- Pediatric and Autoimmune Endocrine Disease Unit, "Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù", Via Torre di Palidoro, 00050 Fiumicino (Rome), Italy
| | - S Spera
- Pediatric and Autoimmune Endocrine Disease Unit, "Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù", Via Torre di Palidoro, 00050 Fiumicino (Rome), Italy
| | - P De Bartolo
- IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation (CERC), Via del Fosso di Fiorano 65, 00143 Rome, Italy; Faculty of Formation Science, University "Guglielmo Marconi", Via Plinio 44, 00193 Rome, Italy
| | - L Mandolesi
- IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation (CERC), Via del Fosso di Fiorano 65, 00143 Rome, Italy; Department of Motor Science and Wellness, University "Parthenope", Via Medina 40, 80133 Naples, Italy.
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Foti F, Menghini D, Orlandi E, Rufini C, Crinò A, Spera S, Vicari S, Petrosini L, Mandolesi L. Learning by observation and learning by doing in Prader-Willi syndrome. J Neurodev Disord 2015; 7:6. [PMID: 25914757 PMCID: PMC4409733 DOI: 10.1186/s11689-015-9102-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2014] [Accepted: 01/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND New competencies may be learned through active experience (learning by doing) or observation of others' experience (learning by observation). Observing another person performing a complex action accelerates the observer's acquisition of the same action, limiting the time-consuming process of learning by doing. Here, we compared learning by observation and learning by doing in individuals with Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS). It is hypothesized that PWS individuals could show more difficulties with learning by observation than learning by doing because of their specific difficulty in interpreting and using social information. METHODS The performance of 24 PWS individuals was compared with that of 28 mental age (MA)- and gender-matched typically developing (TD) children in tasks of learning a visuo-motor sequence by observation or by doing. To determine whether the performance pattern exhibited by PWS participants was specific to this population or whether it was a nonspecific intellectual disability effect, we compared the PWS performances with those of a third MA- and gender-matched group of individuals with Williams syndrome (WS). RESULTS PWS individuals were severely impaired in detecting a sequence by observation, were able to detect a sequence by doing, and became as efficient as TD children in reproducing an observed sequence after a task of learning by doing. The learning pattern of PWS children was reversed compared with that of WS individuals. CONCLUSIONS The observational learning deficit in PWS individuals may be rooted, at least partially, in their incapacity to understand and/or use social information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Foti
- Department of Psychology, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Via dei Marsi 78, 00185 Rome, Italy ; IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Via del Fosso di Fiorano 64, 00143 Rome, Italy
| | - Deny Menghini
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Neuroscience Department, "Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù", Piazza Sant'Onofrio 4, 00100 Rome, Italy
| | - Enzo Orlandi
- Department of Psychology, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Via dei Marsi 78, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Cristina Rufini
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Neuroscience Department, "Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù", Piazza Sant'Onofrio 4, 00100 Rome, Italy
| | - Antonino Crinò
- Pediatric and Autoimmune Endocrine Disease Unit, "Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù", Palidoro, Via Torre di Palidoro, 00050 Fiumicino, Rome, Italy
| | - Sabrina Spera
- Pediatric and Autoimmune Endocrine Disease Unit, "Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù", Palidoro, Via Torre di Palidoro, 00050 Fiumicino, Rome, Italy
| | - Stefano Vicari
- Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, Neuroscience Department, "Children's Hospital Bambino Gesù", Piazza Sant'Onofrio 4, 00100 Rome, Italy
| | - Laura Petrosini
- Department of Psychology, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Via dei Marsi 78, 00185 Rome, Italy ; IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Via del Fosso di Fiorano 64, 00143 Rome, Italy
| | - Laura Mandolesi
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Via del Fosso di Fiorano 64, 00143 Rome, Italy ; Department of Motor Science and Wellness, University of Naples "Parthenope", Via Medina 40, 80133 Naples, Italy
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Pegoraro LFL, Steiner CE, Celeri EHRV, Banzato CEM, Dalgalarrondo P. Cognitive and behavioral heterogeneity in genetic syndromes. J Pediatr (Rio J) 2014; 90:155-60. [PMID: 24184301 DOI: 10.1016/j.jped.2013.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2013] [Accepted: 06/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE this study aimed to investigate the cognitive and behavioral profiles, as well as the psychiatric symptoms and disorders in children with three different genetic syndromes with similar sociocultural and socioeconomic backgrounds. METHODS thirty-four children aged 6 to 16 years, with Williams-Beuren syndrome (n=10), Prader-Willi syndrome (n=11), and Fragile X syndrome (n=13) from the outpatient clinics of Child Psychiatry and Medical Genetics Department were cognitively assessed through the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-III). Afterwards, a full-scale intelligence quotient (IQ), verbal IQ, performance IQ, standard subtest scores, as well as frequency of psychiatric symptoms and disorders were compared among the three syndromes. RESULTS significant differences were found among the syndromes concerning verbal IQ and verbal and performance subtests. Post-hoc analysis demonstrated that vocabulary and comprehension subtest scores were significantly higher in Williams-Beuren syndrome in comparison with Prader-Willi and Fragile X syndromes, and block design and object assembly scores were significantly higher in Prader-Willi syndrome compared with Williams-Beuren and Fragile X syndromes. Additionally, there were significant differences between the syndromes concerning behavioral features and psychiatric symptoms. The Prader-Willi syndrome group presented a higher frequency of hyperphagia and self-injurious behaviors. The Fragile X syndrome group showed a higher frequency of social interaction deficits; such difference nearly reached statistical significance. CONCLUSION the three genetic syndromes exhibited distinctive cognitive, behavioral, and psychiatric patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luiz F L Pegoraro
- Department of Medical Psychology and Psychiatry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidade de Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil; Pediatric Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidade de Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil.
| | - Carlos E Steiner
- Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidade de Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Eloisa H R V Celeri
- Department of Medical Psychology and Psychiatry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidade de Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Claudio E M Banzato
- Department of Medical Psychology and Psychiatry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidade de Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Paulo Dalgalarrondo
- Department of Medical Psychology and Psychiatry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidade de Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil; Pediatric Research Center, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Universidade de Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil
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Pegoraro LF, Steiner CE, Celeri EH, Banzato CE, Dalgalarrondo P. Cognitive and behavioral heterogeneity in genetic syndromes. JORNAL DE PEDIATRIA (VERSÃO EM PORTUGUÊS) 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpedp.2013.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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Menghini D, Di Paola M, Murri R, Costanzo F, Caltagirone C, Vicari S, Petrosini L. Cerebellar vermis abnormalities and cognitive functions in individuals with Williams syndrome. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2013; 34:2118-2126. [PMID: 23643765 DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2013.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2013] [Revised: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 03/25/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
In Williams syndrome (WS) cerebellar measures were only indirectly related to behavioral outcomes. T1-weighted magnetic resonance images and neuropsychological data were acquired to investigate whether cerebellar vermis differences were present in 12 WS individuals compared with 13 chronological age-matched controls and whether WS cerebellar vermis measures were related to cognitive scores. In WS participants, we observed a significant increase in the volume of the posterior superior cerebellar vermis (lobules VI-VII) and an atypical ratio between width and height of the cerebellar vermis. Furthermore, we found an inverse correlation between cerebellar posterior vermis volume and scores on implicit learning, phonological fluency and the verbal short-term memory tasks. The present study supported a role for the posterior cerebellar vermis in higher cognitive processes and indicated that the cerebellar vermis abnormalities (enlargement) in WS individuals have an effect in worsening the cognitive performance in specific domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deny Menghini
- Department of Neuroscience, Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, IRCCS, Rome, Italy.
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Foti F, Menghini D, Mandolesi L, Federico F, Vicari S, Petrosini L. Learning by observation: insights from Williams syndrome. PLoS One 2013; 8:e53782. [PMID: 23326504 PMCID: PMC3542281 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0053782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2012] [Accepted: 12/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Observing another person performing a complex action accelerates the observer’s acquisition of the same action and limits the time-consuming process of learning by trial and error. Observational learning makes an interesting and potentially important topic in the developmental domain, especially when disorders are considered. The implications of studies aimed at clarifying whether and how this form of learning is spared by pathology are manifold. We focused on a specific population with learning and intellectual disabilities, the individuals with Williams syndrome. The performance of twenty-eight individuals with Williams syndrome was compared with that of mental age- and gender-matched thirty-two typically developing children on tasks of learning of a visuo-motor sequence by observation or by trial and error. Regardless of the learning modality, acquiring the correct sequence involved three main phases: a detection phase, in which participants discovered the correct sequence and learned how to perform the task; an exercise phase, in which they reproduced the sequence until performance was error-free; an automatization phase, in which by repeating the error-free sequence they became accurate and speedy. Participants with Williams syndrome beneficiated of observational training (in which they observed an actor detecting the visuo-motor sequence) in the detection phase, while they performed worse than typically developing children in the exercise and automatization phases. Thus, by exploiting competencies learned by observation, individuals with Williams syndrome detected the visuo-motor sequence, putting into action the appropriate procedural strategies. Conversely, their impaired performances in the exercise phases appeared linked to impaired spatial working memory, while their deficits in automatization phases to deficits in processes increasing efficiency and speed of the response. Overall, observational experience was advantageous for acquiring competencies, since it primed subjects’ interest in the actions to be performed and functioned as a catalyst for executed action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Foti
- Department of Developmental and Social Psychology, University Sapienza of Rome, Rome, Italy.
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