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Zhang Y, Gao H, Zheng W, Xu H. Current understanding of the interactions between metal ions and Apolipoprotein E in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2022; 172:105824. [PMID: 35878744 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common type of dementia in the elderly, is a chronic and progressive neurodegenerative disorder with no effective disease-modifying treatments to date. Studies have shown that an imbalance in brain metal ions, such as zinc, copper, and iron, is closely related to the onset and progression of AD. Many efforts have been made to understand metal-related mechanisms and therapeutic strategies for AD. Emerging evidence suggests that interactions of brain metal ions and apolipoprotein E (ApoE), which is the strongest genetic risk factor for late-onset AD, may be one of the mechanisms for neurodegeneration. Here, we summarize the key points regarding how metal ions and ApoE contribute to the pathogenesis of AD. We further describe the interactions between metal ions and ApoE in the brain and propose that their interactions play an important role in neuropathological alterations and cognitive decline in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhui Zhang
- Department of Tissue Engineering, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Huiling Gao
- Institute of Neuroscience, College of Life and Health Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang, China
| | - Wei Zheng
- Department of Histology and Embryology, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - He Xu
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, School of Medicine, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China.
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Magnetic susceptibility in the deep gray matter may be modulated by apolipoprotein E4 and age with regional predilections: a quantitative susceptibility mapping study. Neuroradiology 2022; 64:1331-1342. [PMID: 34981175 DOI: 10.1007/s00234-021-02859-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To examine the relationship between apolipoprotein E gene (APOE) mutation status and iron accumulation in the deep gray matter of subjects with cognitive symptoms using quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM). METHODS A total of 105 patients with cognitive symptoms were enrolled. QSM data were generated from 3D gradient-echo data using an STI Suite algorithm. A region of interest-based analysis with QSM was performed in the deep gray matter. Differences between APOE4 carriers and non-carriers were assessed by analysis of covariance. Multiple regression analysis was performed to identify the factors associated with magnetic susceptibility. RESULTS Clinical characters such as age, education, MMSE, vascular risk burden, and systolic blood pressure differ between APOE4 carrier and non-carrier groups. The APOE4 carrier group had higher magnetic susceptibility values than the non-carrier group, with significant differences in the caudate (p = 0.004), putamen (p < 0.0001), and globus pallidus (p < 0.0001) which imply higher iron accumulation. In a multiple regression analysis, APOE4 status was found to be a predictor of magnetic susceptibility value in the globus pallidus (p = 0.03); age for magnetic susceptibility value in the caudate nucleus (p = 0.0064); and age and hippocampal atrophy for magnetic susceptibility value in the putamen (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION Our study demonstrates that magnetic susceptibility in globus pallidus is related to APOE4 status while those of caudate and putamen are related to other factors including age. It suggests that brain iron accumulation in the deep gray matter is modulated by APOE4 and age with differential regional predilection.
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Babić Leko M, Jurasović J, Nikolac Perković M, Španić E, Sekovanić A, Orct T, Lukinović Škudar V, Bačić Baronica K, Kiđemet-Piskač S, Vogrinc Ž, Pivac N, Borovečki F, Hof PR, Šimić G. The Association of Essential Metals with APOE Genotype in Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2021; 82:661-672. [PMID: 34057084 DOI: 10.3233/jad-210158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The major confirmed genetic risk factor for late-onset, sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD) is variant ɛ4 of apolipoprotein E gene (APOE). It is proposed that ApoE, a protein involved in transport of cholesterol to neurons can cause neurodegeneration in AD through interaction with metals. Previous studies mostly associated copper, iron, zinc, and calcium with ApoE4-mediated toxicity. OBJECTIVE To test the association of essential metals with APOE genotype. METHODS We compared plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of copper, zinc, iron, sodium, magnesium, calcium, cobalt, molybdenum, manganese, boron, and chromium, and CSF ferritin levels among AD, mild cognitive impairment (MCI) patients, and healthy controls (HC) with different APOE genotype. RESULTS Sodium, copper, and magnesium levels were increased in carriers of ɛ4 allele. Additionally, the increase in sodium, calcium and cobalt plasma levels was observed in carriers of ɛ4/ɛx genotype. The decrease in boron plasma levels was observed in carriers of ɛ4 allele and ɛ4/ɛ4 genotype. Additionally, CSF zinc levels as well as plasma sodium levels were increased in AD patients compared to HC. CONCLUSION These results indicate that the molecular underpinnings of association of essential metals and metalloids with APOE should be further tested and clarified in vivo and in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirjana Babić Leko
- Department of Neuroscience, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Jasna Jurasović
- Analytical Toxicology and Mineral Metabolism Unit, Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb, Croatia
| | | | - Ena Španić
- Department of Neuroscience, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ankica Sekovanić
- Analytical Toxicology and Mineral Metabolism Unit, Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Tatjana Orct
- Analytical Toxicology and Mineral Metabolism Unit, Institute for Medical Research and Occupational Health, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Vesna Lukinović Škudar
- Department of Physiology and Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Koraljka Bačić Baronica
- University Department of Neurology, Clinical Hospital "Sveti Duh", Zagreb, Croatia and Neurology Clinic, Faculty of Medicine, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, Osijek, Croatia
| | | | - Željka Vogrinc
- Laboratory for Neurobiochemistry, Department of Laboratory Diagnostics, University Hospital Centre Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Nela Pivac
- Ruđer Bošković Institute, Division of Molecular Medicine, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Fran Borovečki
- Department for Functional Genomics, Center for Translational and Clinical Research, University of Zagreb Medical School, University Hospital Center Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Patrick R Hof
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, and Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's disease, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Goran Šimić
- Department of Neuroscience, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, Zagreb, Croatia
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Lei P, Ayton S, Bush AI. The essential elements of Alzheimer's disease. J Biol Chem 2020; 296:100105. [PMID: 33219130 PMCID: PMC7948403 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.rev120.008207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Treatments for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) directed against the prominent amyloid plaque neuropathology are yet to be proved effective despite many phase 3 clinical trials. There are several other neurochemical abnormalities that occur in the AD brain that warrant renewed emphasis as potential therapeutic targets for this disease. Among those are the elementomic signatures of iron, copper, zinc, and selenium. Here, we review these essential elements of AD for their broad potential to contribute to Alzheimer’s pathophysiology, and we also highlight more recent attempts to translate these findings into therapeutics. A reinspection of large bodies of discovery in the AD field, such as this, may inspire new thinking about pathogenesis and therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Lei
- Department of Neurology and State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu, P.R. China; Melbourne Dementia Research Centre, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Scott Ayton
- Melbourne Dementia Research Centre, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ashley I Bush
- Melbourne Dementia Research Centre, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
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Abdelhamid M, Jung CG, Zhou C, Abdullah M, Nakano M, Wakabayashi H, Abe F, Michikawa M. Dietary Lactoferrin Supplementation Prevents Memory Impairment and Reduces Amyloid-β Generation in J20 Mice. J Alzheimers Dis 2020; 74:245-259. [DOI: 10.3233/jad-191181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mona Abdelhamid
- Department of Biochemistry, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Cha-Gyun Jung
- Department of Biochemistry, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Chunyu Zhou
- Department of Biochemistry, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Mohammad Abdullah
- Department of Biochemistry, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
| | - Manabu Nakano
- Food Ingredients and Technology Institute, Morinaga Milk Industry Co, Ltd. Zama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Wakabayashi
- Food Ingredients and Technology Institute, Morinaga Milk Industry Co, Ltd. Zama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Fumiaki Abe
- Food Ingredients and Technology Institute, Morinaga Milk Industry Co, Ltd. Zama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Makoto Michikawa
- Department of Biochemistry, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Mizuho-ku, Nagoya, Aichi, Japan
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Oh SB, Kim JA, Park S, Lee JY. Associative Interactions among Zinc, Apolipoprotein E, and Amyloid-β in the Amyloid Pathology. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21030802. [PMID: 31991844 PMCID: PMC7037199 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21030802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Revised: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Zinc and apolipoprotein E (apoE) are reportedly involved in the pathology of Alzheimer's disease. To investigate the associative interaction among zinc, apoE, and amyloid-β (Aβ) and its role in amyloid pathogenesis, we performed various biochemical and immunoreactive analyses using brain tissues of Tg2576 mice and synthetic Aβ and apoE peptides. On amyloid plaques or in brain lysates of Tg2576 mice, apoE and Aβ immunoreactivities increased after zinc chelation and were restored by its subsequent replacement. Zinc depletion dissociated apoE/Aβ complexes or larger-molecular sizes of Aβ oligomers/aggregates into smaller-molecular sizes of apoE and/or Aβ monomers/complexes. In the presence of zinc, synthetic apoE and/or Aβ peptides aggregated into larger-molecular sizes of oligomers or complexes. Endogenous proteases or plasmin in brain lysates degraded apoE and/or Aβ complexes, and their proteolytic activity increased with zinc depletion. These biochemical findings suggest that zinc associates with apoE and Aβ to encourage the formation of apoE/Aβ complexes or large aggregates, raising the deposition of zinc-rich amyloid plaques. In turn, the presence of abundant zinc around and within apoE/Aβ complexes may block the access or activity of Aβ-degrading antibodies or proteases. These results support the plausibility of chelation strategy aiming at reducing amyloid pathology in Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin Bi Oh
- Asan Institute for Life Sciences, Asan Medical Center, Seoul 05505, Korea; (S.B.O.); (J.A.K.); (S.P.)
| | - Jung Ah Kim
- Asan Institute for Life Sciences, Asan Medical Center, Seoul 05505, Korea; (S.B.O.); (J.A.K.); (S.P.)
| | - SuJi Park
- Asan Institute for Life Sciences, Asan Medical Center, Seoul 05505, Korea; (S.B.O.); (J.A.K.); (S.P.)
- Department of Medical Science, Asan Medical Institute of Convergence Science and Technology, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul 05505, Korea
| | - Joo-Yong Lee
- Asan Institute for Life Sciences, Asan Medical Center, Seoul 05505, Korea; (S.B.O.); (J.A.K.); (S.P.)
- Department of Convergence Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul 05505, Korea
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-2-3010-4143; Fax: +82-2-3010-4680
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Wojtunik-Kulesza K, Oniszczuk A, Waksmundzka-Hajnos M. An attempt to elucidate the role of iron and zinc ions in development of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Biomed Pharmacother 2019; 111:1277-1289. [PMID: 30841441 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2018.12.140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2018] [Revised: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative disorders are among the most studied issues both in medicine and pharmacy. Despite long and extensive research, there is no effective treatment prescribed for such diseases, including Alzheimer's or Parkinson's. Available data exposes their multi-faceted character that requires a complex and multidirectional approach to treatment. In this case, the most important challenge is to understand the neurodegenerative mechanisms, which should permit the development of more elaborate and effective therapies. In the submitted review, iron and zinc are discussed as important and perfectly possible neurodegenerative factors behind Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. It is commonly known that these elements are present in living organisms and are essential for the proper operation of the body. Still, their influence is positive only when their proper balance is maintained. Otherwise, when any imbalance occurs, this can eventuate in numerous disturbances, among them oxidative stress, accumulation of amyloid β and the formation of neurofibrillary tangles, let alone the increase in α-synuclein concentration. At the same time, available research data reveals certain discrepancies in approaching metal ions as either impassive, helpful, or negative factors influencing the development of neurodegenerative changes. This review outlines selected neurodegenerative disorders, highlights the role of iron and zinc in the human body and discusses cases of their imbalance leading to neurodegenerative changes as shown in vitro and in vivo studies as well as through relevant mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Wojtunik-Kulesza
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4a, 20-093, Lublin, Poland.
| | - Anna Oniszczuk
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4a, 20-093, Lublin, Poland.
| | - Monika Waksmundzka-Hajnos
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4a, 20-093, Lublin, Poland.
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McAllister BB, Dyck RH. Zinc transporter 3 (ZnT3) and vesicular zinc in central nervous system function. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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9
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Balmuș IM, Strungaru SA, Ciobica A, Nicoara MN, Dobrin R, Plavan G, Ștefănescu C. Preliminary Data on the Interaction between Some Biometals and Oxidative Stress Status in Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer's Disease Patients. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2017; 2017:7156928. [PMID: 28811866 PMCID: PMC5546061 DOI: 10.1155/2017/7156928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2017] [Revised: 06/28/2017] [Accepted: 07/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Increased interest regarding the biometal mechanisms of action and the pathways in which they have regulatory roles was lately observed. Particularly, it was shown that biometal homeostasis dysregulation may lead to neurodegeneration including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson disease, or prion protein disease, since important molecular signaling mechanisms in brain functions implicate both oxidative stress and redox active biometals. Oxidative stress could be a result of a breakdown in metal-ion homeostasis which leads to abnormal metal protein chelation. In our previous work, we reported a strong correlation between Alzheimer's disease and oxidative stress. Consequently, the aim of the present work was to evaluate some of the biometals' levels (magnesium, manganese, and iron), the specific activity of some antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase), and a common lipid peroxidation marker (malondialdehyde concentration), in mild cognitive impairment (n = 15) and Alzheimer's disease (n = 15) patients, compared to age-matched healthy subjects (n = 15). We found increased lipid peroxidation effects, low antioxidant defense, low magnesium and iron concentrations, and high manganese levels in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease patients, in a gradual manner. These data could be relevant for future association studies regarding the prediction of Alzheimer's disease development risk or circling through stages by analyzing both active redox metals, oxidative stress markers, and the correlations in between.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ioana-Miruna Balmuș
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Biology, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, Carol I Avenue, 20A, 700505 Iasi, Romania
| | - Stefan-Adrian Strungaru
- Department of Research, Faculty of Biology, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, Carol I Avenue, 20A, 700505 Iasi, Romania
| | - Alin Ciobica
- Department of Research, Faculty of Biology, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, Carol I Avenue, 20A, 700505 Iasi, Romania
| | - Mircea-Nicusor Nicoara
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Biology, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, Carol I Avenue, 20A, 700505 Iasi, Romania
| | - Romeo Dobrin
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, “Gr. T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16th University Avenue, 700115 Iasi, Romania
| | - Gabriel Plavan
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Biology, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University of Iasi, Carol I Avenue, 20A, 700505 Iasi, Romania
| | - Cristinel Ștefănescu
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, “Gr. T. Popa” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 16th University Avenue, 700115 Iasi, Romania
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10
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Marszałek I, Krężel A, Goch W, Zhukov I, Paczkowska I, Bal W. Revised stability constant, spectroscopic properties and binding mode of Zn(II) to FluoZin-3, the most common zinc probe in life sciences. J Inorg Biochem 2016; 161:107-14. [PMID: 27216451 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2016.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 05/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
2-[2-[2-[2-[bis(carboxylatomethyl)amino]-5-methoxyphenoxy]ethoxy]-4-(2,7-difluoro-3-oxido-6-oxo-4a,9a-dihydroxanthen-9-yl)anilino]acetate (FluoZin-3) is used very broadly in life sciences as intra- and extracellular Zn(II) sensor selective for Zn(II) over Co(II), Ca(II) and Mg(II) ions at their physiological concentrations. It has been used for determination of relative and absolute levels of exchangeable Zn(II) in cells and extracellular fluids. Despite its popularity, the knowledge of its acid/base and Zn(II) coordination abilities and of its spectroscopic properties remained very limited. Also the published conditional dissociation constant ((C)Kd) values at pH7.4 are slightly discrepant, (15nM or 8.9nM). In this work we determined the (C)Kd for Zn(II) complexation by FluoZin-3 at pH7.4 with nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) as competitor using two independent methods: fluorimetry and UV-Vis spectroscopy. For the first time, we investigated FluoZin-3 alone and complexed with Zn(II) in the wide range of pH, determining the total of eight pKa values from fluorescence spectra and from various regions of UV-Vis spectra. The validated values of (C)Kd (9.1±0.4nM; -log (C)Kd=8.04) and of the absolute (pH-independent) stability constant log βZnL (8.16±0.05) were provided by fluorescence spectroscopy experiments performed at 1μM concentrations. Our experiments demonstrated that both of aminocarboxylate moieties of FluoZin-3 bind the Zn(II) ion synergistically.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Marszałek
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5a, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - A Krężel
- Laboratory of Chemical Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology, University of Wroclaw, Joliot-Curie 14a, 50-383 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - W Goch
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5a, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - I Zhukov
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5a, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland; NanoBioMedical Centre, Adam Mickiewicz University, Umultowska 85, 61-614 Poznań, Poland
| | - I Paczkowska
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5a, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland
| | - W Bal
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Pawińskiego 5a, 02-106 Warsaw, Poland.
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Prakash A, Dhaliwal GK, Kumar P, Majeed ABA. Brain biometals and Alzheimer's disease - boon or bane? Int J Neurosci 2016; 127:99-108. [PMID: 27044501 DOI: 10.3109/00207454.2016.1174118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia. Several hypotheses have been put forward to explain the basis of disease onset and progression. A complicated array of molecular events has been implicated in the pathogenesis of AD. It is attributed to a variety of pathological conditions that share similar critical processes, such as oxidative stress, proteinaceous aggregations, mitochondrial dysfunctions and energy failure. There is increasing evidence suggesting that metal homeostasis is dysregulated in the pathology of AD. Biometals play an important role in the normal body functioning but AD may be mediated or triggered by disproportion of metal ions leading to changes in critical biological systems and initiating a cascade of events finally leading to neurodegeneration and cell death. The link is multifactorial, and although the source of the shift in oxidative homeostasis is still unclear, current evidence points to changes in the balance of redox transition metals, especially iron, copper (Cu) and other trace metals. Their levels in the brain are found to be elevated in AD. In other neurodegenerative disorders, Cu, zinc, aluminum and manganese are involved. This paper is a review of recent advances of the role of metals in the pathogenesis and pathophysiology of AD and related neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atish Prakash
- a 1 Faculty of Pharmacy , UniversitiTeknologi MARA (UiTM) , Puncak Alam , Selangor DarulEhsan , Malaysia.,b 2 Pharmacology Division, ISF College of Pharmacy , Moga , India.,c 3 Brain Degeneration and Therapeutics Group, Pharmaceutical & Life Sciences, Community of Research (CoRe), UniversitiTeknologi MARA (UiTM) , Shah Alam , Selangor Darul Ehsan , Malaysia
| | | | - Puneet Kumar
- b 2 Pharmacology Division, ISF College of Pharmacy , Moga , India
| | - Abu Bakar Abdul Majeed
- a 1 Faculty of Pharmacy , UniversitiTeknologi MARA (UiTM) , Puncak Alam , Selangor DarulEhsan , Malaysia.,c 3 Brain Degeneration and Therapeutics Group, Pharmaceutical & Life Sciences, Community of Research (CoRe), UniversitiTeknologi MARA (UiTM) , Shah Alam , Selangor Darul Ehsan , Malaysia
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12
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Xu H, Perreau VM, Dent KA, Bush AI, Finkelstein DI, Adlard PA. Iron Regulates Apolipoprotein E Expression and Secretion in Neurons and Astrocytes. J Alzheimers Dis 2016; 51:471-87. [DOI: 10.3233/jad-150797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- He Xu
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- The Department of Tissue Engineering, School of Fundamental Science, China Medical University, Shenyang North New Area, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, P.R. China
| | - Victoria M. Perreau
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Krista A. Dent
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ashley I. Bush
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - David I. Finkelstein
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Paul A. Adlard
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Tian T, Ni H, Sun BL. Neurobehavioral Deficits in a Rat Model of Recurrent Neonatal Seizures Are Prevented by a Ketogenic Diet and Correlate with Hippocampal Zinc/Lipid Transporter Signals. Biol Trace Elem Res 2015; 167:251-8. [PMID: 25778834 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-015-0285-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Accepted: 02/24/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The ketogenic diet (KD) has been shown to be effective as an antiepileptic therapy in adults, but it has not been extensively tested for its efficacy in neonatal seizure-induced brain damage. We have previously shown altered expression of zinc/lipid metabolism-related genes in hippocampus following penicillin-induced developmental model of epilepsy. In this study, we further investigated the effect of KD on the neurobehavioral and cognitive deficits, as well as if KD has any influence in the activity of zinc/lipid transporters such as zinc transporter 3 (ZnT-3), MT-3, ApoE, ApoJ (clusterin), and ACAT-1 activities in neonatal rats submitted to flurothyl-induced recurrent seizures. Postnatal day 9 (P9), 48 Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to two groups: flurothyl-induced recurrent seizure group (EXP) and control group (CONT). On P28, they were further randomly divided into the seizure group without ketogenic diet (EXP1), seizure plus ketogenic diet (EXP2), the control group without ketogenic diet (CONT1), and the control plus ketogenic diet (CONT2). Neurological behavioral parameters of brain damage (plane righting reflex, cliff avoidance reflex, and open field test) were observed from P35 to P49. Morris water maze test was performed during P51-P57. Then hippocampal mossy fiber sprouting and the protein levels of ZnT3, MT3, ApoE, CLU, and ACAT-1 were detected by Timm staining and Western blot analysis, respectively. Flurothyl-induced neurobehavioral toxicology and aberrant mossy fiber sprouting were blocked by KD. In parallel with these behavioral changes, rats treated with KD (EXP2) showed a significant down-regulated expression of ZnT-3, MT-3, ApoE, clusterin, and ACAT-1 in hippocampus when compared with the non-KD-treated EXP1 group. Our findings provide support for zinc/lipid transporter signals being potential targets for the treatment of neonatal seizure-induced brain damage by KD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian Tian
- Neurology Laboratory, Children's Hospital of Soochow University, No.303, Jingde Road, Suzhou, 215003, People's Republic of China
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Xu H, Gupta VB, Martins IJ, Martins RN, Fowler CJ, Bush AI, Finkelstein DI, Adlard PA. Zinc affects the proteolytic stability of Apolipoprotein E in an isoform-dependent way. Neurobiol Dis 2015; 81:38-48. [PMID: 26117305 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2015.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2014] [Revised: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 06/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathological role of zinc in Alzheimer's disease (AD) is not yet fully elucidated, but there is strong evidence that zinc homeostasis is impaired in the AD brain and that this contributes to disease pathogenesis. In this study we examined the effects of zinc on the proteolysis of synthetic Apolipoprotein E (ApoE), a protein whose allelic variants differentially contribute to the onset/progression of disease. We have demonstrated that zinc promotes the proteolysis (using plasma kallikrein, thrombin and chymotrypsin) of synthetic ApoE in an isoform-specific way (E4>E2 and E3), resulting in more ApoE fragments, particularly for ApoE4. In the absence of exogenous proteases there was no effect of metal modulation on either lipidated or non-lipidated ApoE isoforms. Thus, increased zinc in the complex milieu of the ageing and AD brain could reduce the level of normal full-length ApoE and increase other forms that are involved in neurodegeneration. We further examined human plasma samples from people with different ApoE genotypes. Consistent with previous studies, plasma ApoE levels varied according to different genotypes, with ApoE2 carriers showing the highest total ApoE levels and ApoE4 carriers the lowest. The levels of plasma ApoE were not affected by either the addition of exogenous metals (copper, zinc or iron) or by chelation. Taken together, our study reveals that zinc may contribute to the pathogenesis of AD by affecting the proteolysis of ApoE, which to some extent explains why APOE4 carriers are more susceptible to AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Xu
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Veer B Gupta
- Centre of Excellence for Alzheimer's Disease Research and Care, School of Medical Sciences, Edith Cowan University, 270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, 6027 WA, Australia
| | - Ian J Martins
- Centre of Excellence for Alzheimer's Disease Research and Care, School of Medical Sciences, Edith Cowan University, 270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, 6027 WA, Australia
| | - Ralph N Martins
- Centre of Excellence for Alzheimer's Disease Research and Care, School of Medical Sciences, Edith Cowan University, 270 Joondalup Drive, Joondalup, 6027 WA, Australia
| | - Christopher J Fowler
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Ashley I Bush
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - David I Finkelstein
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Paul A Adlard
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
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Ferritin levels in the cerebrospinal fluid predict Alzheimer's disease outcomes and are regulated by APOE. Nat Commun 2015; 6:6760. [PMID: 25988319 PMCID: PMC4479012 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms7760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 218] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 02/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain iron elevation is implicated in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis, but the impact of iron on disease outcomes has not been previously explored in a longitudinal study. Ferritin is the major iron storage protein of the body; by using cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of ferritin as an index, we explored whether brain iron status impacts longitudinal outcomes in the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) cohort. We show that baseline CSF ferritin levels were negatively associated with cognitive performance over 7 years in 91 cognitively normal, 144 mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and 67 AD subjects, and predicted MCI conversion to AD. Ferritin was strongly associated with CSF apolipoprotein E levels and was elevated by the Alzheimer's risk allele, APOE-ɛ4. These findings reveal that elevated brain iron adversely impacts on AD progression, and introduce brain iron elevation as a possible mechanism for APOE-ɛ4 being the major genetic risk factor for AD.
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Flinn JM, Bozzelli PL, Adlard PA, Railey AM. Spatial memory deficits in a mouse model of late-onset Alzheimer's disease are caused by zinc supplementation and correlate with amyloid-beta levels. Front Aging Neurosci 2014; 6:174. [PMID: 25374537 PMCID: PMC4205817 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2014.00174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2013] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Much of the research in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) that uses mouse models focuses on the early-onset form of the disease, which accounts for less than 5% of cases. In contrast, this study used a late-onset AD model to examine the interaction between increased dietary zinc (Zn) and the apolipoprotein E (ApoE) gene. ApoE ε4 is overrepresented in late-onset AD and enhances Zn binding to amyloid-β (Aβ). This study sought to determine if elevated dietary Zn would impair spatial memory in CRND8 mice (CRND8), as well as mice who carry both the mutated human amyloid precursor protein (APP) and ApoE ε4 genes (CRND8/E4). Mice were provided with either lab tap water or water enhanced with 10 ppm Zn (ZnCO3) for 4 months. At 6 months of age, spatial memory was measured by the Barnes maze. CRND8 mice exhibited significant memory deficits compared to WT mice, as shown by an increased latency to reach the escape box. For the CRND8/E4, but not the CRND8 mice, those given Zn water made significantly more errors than those on lab water. During the probe trial for the WT group, those on Zn water spent significantly less time in the target quadrant than those on lab water. These data suggest that increased dietary Zn can significantly impair spatial memory in CRND8/E4. WT mice given Zn water were also impaired on the 24-h probe trial when compared to lab water WTs. Within the CRND8/E4 group only, levels of soluble Aβ were significantly correlated with average primary latencies. Within the Zn-treated CRND8/E4 group, there was a significant correlation between insoluble Aβ and average primary errors. Levels of the zinc transporter 3, ZnT3, were negatively correlated with soluble Aβ (p < 0.01). These findings are particularly relevant because increased intake of dietary supplements, such as Zn, are common in the elderly—a population already at risk for AD. Given the effects observed in the CRND8/E4 mice, ApoE status should be taken into consideration when evaluating the efficacy of therapies targeting metals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane M Flinn
- Department of Psychology, George Mason University Fairfax, VA, USA
| | | | - Paul A Adlard
- Synaptic Neurobiology Laboratory, The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Angela M Railey
- Department of Psychology, George Mason University Fairfax, VA, USA
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17
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Xu H, Finkelstein DI, Adlard PA. Interactions of metals and Apolipoprotein E in Alzheimer's disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2014; 6:121. [PMID: 24971061 PMCID: PMC4054654 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2014.00121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia, which is characterized by the neuropathological accumulation of extracellular amyloid plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). Clinically, patients will endure a gradual erosion of memory and other higher order cognitive functions. Whilst the underlying etiology of the disease remains to be definitively identified, a body of work has developed over the last two decades demonstrating that AD plasma/serum and brain are characterized by a dyshomeostasis in a number of metal ions. Furthermore, these metals (such as zinc, copper and iron) play roles in the regulation of the levels of AD-related proteins, including the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and tau. It is becoming apparent that metals also interact with other proteins, including apolipoprotein E (ApoE). The Apolipoprotein E gene (APOE) is critically associated with AD, with APOE4 representing the strongest genetic risk factor for the development of late-onset AD. In this review we will summarize the evidence supporting a role for metals in the function of ApoE and its consequent role in the pathogenesis of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- He Xu
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - David I Finkelstein
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Paul A Adlard
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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18
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Nuttall JR, Oteiza PI. Zinc and the aging brain. GENES AND NUTRITION 2013; 9:379. [PMID: 24366781 DOI: 10.1007/s12263-013-0379-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Accepted: 12/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Alterations in trace element homeostasis could be involved in the pathology of dementia, and in particular of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Zinc is a structural or functional component of many proteins, being involved in numerous and relevant physiological functions. Zinc homeostasis is affected in the elderly, and current evidence points to alterations in the cellular and systemic distribution of zinc in AD. Although the association of zinc and other metals with AD pathology remains unclear, therapeutic approaches designed to restore trace element homeostasis are being tested in clinical trials. Not only could zinc supplementation potentially benefit individuals with AD, but zinc supplementation also improves glycemic control in the elderly suffering from diabetes mellitus. However, the findings that select genetic polymorphisms may alter an individual's zinc intake requirements should be taken into consideration when planning zinc supplementation. This review will focus on current knowledge regarding pathological and protective mechanisms involving brain zinc in AD to highlight areas where future research may enable development of new and improved therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johnathan R Nuttall
- Department of Nutrition, University of California, One Shields Av., Davis, CA, 95616, USA
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Lee JY, Cho E, Seo JW, Hwang JJ, Koh JY. Alteration of the cerebral zinc pool in a mouse model of Alzheimer disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2012; 71:211-22. [PMID: 22318122 DOI: 10.1097/nen.0b013e3182417387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Synaptic vesicle Zn is regulated by zinc transporter 3 (ZnT3) and is involved in neurotransmission and synaptic plasticity. Here, we describe extensive alterations of ZnT3-regulated Zn pools in the brains of human amyloid precursor protein-transgenic (Tg2576) mice. In contrast to wild-type littermates in which ZnT3 expression and synaptic Zn increased with age, there were age-dependent reductions in ZnT3 expression and synaptic Zn levels in the hippocampal mossy fiber area of Tg2576 mice. In these mice, a novel Zn pool and ZnT3 expression were colocalized and appeared along dystrophic neurites surrounding compact amyloid plaques that were identified by in situ blue fluorescence, congophilic birefringence, and Aβ42 immunoreactivity. Zn-specific histofluorescence and ZnT3 immunofluorescence in dystrophic neurites were also colocalized with the δ-subunit of adaptor protein complex 3, lysosome-associated membrane protein, cathepsin D, and neurofilament-containing hyperphosphorylated paired helical filaments. The synaptic vesicle marker protein synaptophysin and vesicle-associated membrane protein were not found in these neurites, suggesting a role of ZnT3 distinct from itsnormal role in synaptic Zn. ZnT3 immunoreactivity and Zn histofluorescence were also evident in activated astrocytes. These datasuggest that extensive modifications of the cerebral Zn pool, particularly synaptic Zn, may underlie neuronal dysfunction characteristic of Alzheimer disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joo-Yong Lee
- Asan Institute for Life Sciences, Asan Medical Center, Seoul 138-736, Republic of Korea.
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Apolipoprotein E genotype affects tissue metallothionein levels: studies in targeted gene replacement mice. GENES AND NUTRITION 2012; 7:247-55. [PMID: 22328270 DOI: 10.1007/s12263-012-0282-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2011] [Accepted: 01/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype is an important risk factor for ageing and age-related diseases. The APOE4 genotype (in contrast to APOE3) has been shown to be associated with oxidative stress and chronic inflammation. Metallothioneins (MT) exhibit antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity, and MT overexpression has been shown to increase lifespan in mice. Interactions between APOE and MT, however, are largely unknown. Hence, we determined the effect of the APOE4 versus APOE3 genotype on MT levels in targeted gene replacement mice. APOE4 versus APOE3 mice exhibited significantly lower hepatic MT1 and MT2 mRNA as well as lower MT protein levels. The decrease in hepatic MT protein levels in APOE4 as compared to APOE3 mice was accompanied by lower nuclear Nrf1, a protein partly controlling MT gene expression. Cell culture experiments using hepatocytes identified allyl-isothiocyanate (AITC) as a potent MT inductor in vitro. Therefore, we supplemented APOE3 and APOE4 mice with AITC. However, AITC (15 mg/kg b.w.) could only partly correct for decreased MT1 and MT2 gene expression in APOE4 mice in vivo. Furthermore, cholesterol significantly decreased both Nrf1 and MT mRNA levels in Huh7 cells indicating that differences in MT gene expression between the two genotypes could be related to differences in hepatic cholesterol concentrations. Overall, present data suggest that the APOE genotype is an important determinant of tissue MT levels in mice and that MT gene expression may be impaired by the APOE4 genotype.
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