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Schneider JK, Ove CA, Pirlo RK, Biffinger JC. Synthesis and characterization of thermoplastic poly(piperazine succinate) metallopolymers coordinated to ruthenium(
III
) or iron(
III
). JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.20220583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Clarissa A. Ove
- Department of Chemistry University of Dayton Dayton Ohio USA
| | - Russell K. Pirlo
- Department of Chemical Engineering University of Dayton Dayton Ohio USA
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Barreiro S, Silva B, Long S, Pinto M, Remião F, Sousa E, Silva R. Fiscalin Derivatives as Potential Neuroprotective Agents. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14071456. [PMID: 35890350 PMCID: PMC9320635 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14071456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases (ND) share common molecular/cellular mechanisms that contribute to their progression and pathogenesis. In this sense, we are here proposing new neuroprotection strategies by using marine-derived compounds as fiscalins. This work aims to evaluate the protective effects of fiscalin derivatives towards 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+)- and iron (III)-induced cytotoxicity in differentiated SH-SY5Y cells, an in vitro disease model to study ND; and on P-glycoprotein (P-gp) transport activity, an efflux pump of drugs and neurotoxins. SH-SY5Y cells were simultaneously exposed to MPP+ or iron (III), and noncytotoxic concentrations of 18 fiscalin derivatives (0–25 μM), being the cytotoxic effect of both MPP+ and iron (III) evaluated 24 and 48 h after exposure. Fiscalins 1a and 1b showed a significant protective effect against MPP+-induced cytotoxicity and fiscalins 1b, 2b, 4 and 5 showed a protective effect against iron (III)-induced cytotoxicity. Fiscalins 4 and 5 caused a significant P-gp inhibition, while fiscalins 1c, 2a, 2b, 6 and 11 caused a modest increase in P-gp transport activity, thus suggesting a promising source of new P-gp inhibitors and activators, respectively. The obtained results highlight fiscalins with promising neuroprotective effects and with relevance for the synthesis of new derivatives for the treatment/prevention of ND.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Barreiro
- Associate Laboratory i4HB—Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (B.S.); (F.R.)
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Requimte, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- Correspondence: (S.B.); (R.S.)
| | - Bárbara Silva
- Associate Laboratory i4HB—Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (B.S.); (F.R.)
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Requimte, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Solida Long
- Department of Bioengineering, Royal University of Phnom Penh, Russian Confederation Blvd., Phnom Penh 12156, Cambodia;
- CIIMAR—Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal; (M.P.); (E.S.)
| | - Madalena Pinto
- CIIMAR—Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal; (M.P.); (E.S.)
- Laboratory of Organic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Fernando Remião
- Associate Laboratory i4HB—Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (B.S.); (F.R.)
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Requimte, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Emília Sousa
- CIIMAR—Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal; (M.P.); (E.S.)
- Laboratory of Organic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Renata Silva
- Associate Laboratory i4HB—Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; (B.S.); (F.R.)
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Requimte, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- Correspondence: (S.B.); (R.S.)
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3
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Kumar B, Kumar N, Thakur A, Kumar V, Kumar R, Kumar V. A Review on the Arylpiperazine Derivatives as Potential Therapeutics for the Treatment of Various Neurological Disorders. Curr Drug Targets 2022; 23:729-751. [DOI: 10.2174/1389450123666220117104038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Abstract:
Neurological disorders are disease conditions related to the neurons and central nervous system (CNS). Any kind of structural, electrical, biochemical and functional abnormalities in neurons can lead to various types of disorders like Alzheimer’s disease (AD), depression, Parkinson’s disease (PD), epilepsy, stroke, etc. Currently available medicines are symptomatic and do not treat the disease state. Thus, novel CNS active agents with the potential of complete treatment of an illness are highly desired. A range of small organic molecules are being explored as potential drug candidates for the cure of different neurological disorders. In this context, arylpiperazine has been found to be a versatile scaffold and indispensable pharmacophore in many CNS active agents. A number of molecules with arylpiperazine nucleus have been developed as potent leads for the treatment of AD, PD, depression and other disorders. The arylpiperazine nucleus can be optionally substituted at different chemical structures and offer flexibility for the synthesis of large number of derivatives. In the current review article, we have explored the role of various arylpiperazine containing scaffolds against different neurological disorders, including AD, PD, and depression. The structure-activity relationship studies were conducted for recognizing potent lead compounds. This review article may provide important clues on the structural requirements for the design and synthesis of effective molecules as curative agents for different neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhupinder Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India-151401
| | - Naveen Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India-151401
| | - Amandeep Thakur
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India-151401
| | - Vijay Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India-151401
| | | | - Vinod Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Natural Products, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda, Punjab, India-151401
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4
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Kumar RR, Sahu B, Pathania S, Singh PK, Akhtar MJ, Kumar B. Piperazine, a Key Substructure for Antidepressants: Its Role in Developments and Structure-Activity Relationships. ChemMedChem 2021; 16:1878-1901. [PMID: 33751807 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202100045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Depression is the single largest contributor to global disability with a huge economic and social burden on the world. There are a number of antidepressant drugs on the market, but treatment-resistant depression and relapse of depression in a large number of patients have increased problems for clinicians. One peculiarity observed in most of the marketed antidepressants is the presence of a piperazine substructure. Although piperazine is also used in the optimization of other pharmacological agents, it is almost extensively used for the development of novel antidepressants. One common understanding is that this is due to its favorable CNS pharmacokinetic profile; however, in the case of antidepressants, piperazine plays a much bigger role and is involved in specific binding conformations of these agents. Therefore, in this review, a critical analysis of the significance of the piperazine moiety in the development of antidepressants has been performed. An overview of current developments in the designing and synthesis of piperazine-based antidepressants (2015 onwards) along with SAR studies is also provided. The various piperazine-based therapeutic agents in early- or late-phase human testing for depression are also discussed. The preclinical compounds discussed in this review will help researchers understand how piperazine actually influences the design and development of novel antidepressant compounds. The SAR studies discussed will provide crucial clues about the structural features and optimizations required to enhance the efficacy and potency of piperazine-based antidepressants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravi Ranjan Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, ISF College of Pharmacy, Ghal Kalan, G.T Road, Moga, Punjab, 142001, India
| | - Bhaskar Sahu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, ISF College of Pharmacy, Ghal Kalan, G.T Road, Moga, Punjab, 142001, India
| | - Shelly Pathania
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, ISF College of Pharmacy, Ghal Kalan, G.T Road, Moga, Punjab, 142001, India
| | - Pankaj Kumar Singh
- Integrative Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Turku, 20520, Turku, Finland
| | - M Jawaid Akhtar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, ISF College of Pharmacy, Ghal Kalan, G.T Road, Moga, Punjab, 142001, India
| | - Bhupinder Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, ISF College of Pharmacy, Ghal Kalan, G.T Road, Moga, Punjab, 142001, India
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5
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Kant R, Maji S. Recent advances in the synthesis of piperazine based ligands and metal complexes and their applications. Dalton Trans 2021; 50:785-800. [PMID: 33416816 DOI: 10.1039/d0dt03569f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The piperazine scaffold is a privileged structure frequently found in biologically active compounds. Piperazine nucleus is found in many marketed drugs in the realm of antidepressants (amoxapine), antipsychotics (bifeprunox), antihistamines (cyclizine and oxatomide), antifungals (itraconazole), antibiotics (ciprofloxacin), etc. This is one of the reasons why piperazine based compounds are gaining prominence in today's research. In addition to the ring carbons, substitution in the nitrogen atom of piperazine not only creates potential drug molecules but also makes it unique with versatile binding possibilities with metal ions. Piperazine ring-based compounds find their application in biological systems with antihistamine, anticancer, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. They have also been successfully used in the field of catalysis and metal organic frameworks (MOFs). The present review focuses on the synthesis and application of different piperazine derivatives and their metal complexes having diverse applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rishi Kant
- School of Chemical Engineering and Physical Sciences, Lovely Professional University, Punjab 144411, India.
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6
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Sharma A, Wakode S, Fayaz F, Khasimbi S, Pottoo FH, Kaur A. An Overview of Piperazine Scaffold as Promising Nucleus for Different Therapeutic Targets. Curr Pharm Des 2020; 26:4373-4385. [DOI: 10.2174/1381612826666200417154810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Piperazine scaffolds are a group of heterocyclic atoms having pharmacological values and showing
significant results in pharmaceutical chemistry. Piperazine has a flexible core structure for the design and synthesis
of new bioactive compounds. These flexible heterogenous compounds exhibit various biological roles, primarily
anticancer, antioxidant, cognition enhancers, antimicrobial, antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antiinflammatory,
anti-HIV-1 inhibitors, antidiabetic, antimalarial, antidepressant, antianxiety and anticonvulsant
activities, etc. In the past few years, researchers focused on the therapeutic profile of piperazine synthons for
different biological targets. The present review highlights the development in designing pharmacological activities
of nitrogen-containing piperazine moiety as a therapeutic agent. The extensive popularity of piperazine as a
drug of abuse and their vast heterogeneity research efforts over the last years motivated the new investigators to
further explore this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjali Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, Sector-3, MB Road, Pushp Vihar, New Delhi-110017, India
| | - Sharad Wakode
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, Sector-3, MB Road, Pushp Vihar, New Delhi-110017, India
| | - Faizana Fayaz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, Sector-3, MB Road, Pushp Vihar, New Delhi-110017, India
| | - Shaik Khasimbi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Delhi Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Research, Sector-3, MB Road, Pushp Vihar, New Delhi-110017, India
| | - Faheem H. Pottoo
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Clinical Pharmacy, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, P.O. BOX 1982, Dammam 31441, Saudi Arabia
| | - Avneet Kaur
- SGT college of Pharmacy, SGT University, Gurugram, Haryana- 122001, India
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7
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Abstract
The key molecular events that provoke Parkinson's disease (PD) are not fully understood. Iron deposit was found in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) of PD patients and animal models, where dopaminergic neurons degeneration occurred selectively. The mechanisms involved in disturbed iron metabolism remain unknown, however, considerable evidence indicates that iron transporters dysregulation, activation of L-type voltage-gated calcium channel (LTCC) and ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels, as well as N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors (NMDARs) contribute to this process. There is emerging evidence on the structural links and functional modulations between iron and α-synuclein, and the key player in PD which aggregates in Lewy bodies. Iron is believed to modulate α-synuclein synthesis, post-translational modification, and aggregation. Furthermore, glia, especially activated astroglia and microglia, are involved in iron deposit in PD. Glial contributions were largely dependent on the factors they released, e.g., neurotrophic factors, pro-inflammatory factors, lactoferrin, and those undetermined. Therefore, iron chelation using iron chelators, the extracts from many natural foods with iron chelating properties, may be an effective therapy for prevention and treatment of the disease.
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8
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Yang X, Cai P, Liu Q, Wu J, Yin Y, Wang X, Kong L. Novel 8-hydroxyquinoline derivatives targeting β-amyloid aggregation, metal chelation and oxidative stress against Alzheimer’s disease. Bioorg Med Chem 2018; 26:3191-3201. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2018.04.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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9
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Zhang Q, Jin B, Wang X, Lei S, Shi Z, Zhao J, Liu Q, Peng R. The mono(catecholamine) derivatives as iron chelators: synthesis, solution thermodynamic stability and antioxidant properties research. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2018; 5:171492. [PMID: 30110407 PMCID: PMC6030290 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.171492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
There is a growing interest in the development of new iron chelators as novel promising therapeutic strategies for neurodegenerative disorders. In this article, a series of mono(catecholamine) derivatives, 2,3-bis(hydroxy)-N-(hydroxyacyl)benzamide, containing a pendant hydroxy, have been synthesized and fully characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and mass spectrum. The thermodynamic stability of the chelators with FeIII, MgII and ZnII ions was then investigated. The chelators enable formation of (3 : 1) FeIII complexes with high thermodynamic stability and exhibited improved selectivity to FeIII ion. Meanwhile, the results of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl assays of mono(catecholamine) derivatives indicated that they all possess excellent antioxidant properties. These results support the hypothesis that the mono(catecholamine) derivatives be used as high-affinity chelator for iron overload situations without depleting essential metal ions, such as MgII and ZnII ions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingchun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base for Nonmetal Composites and Functional Materials, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, People's Republic of China
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Jin
- State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base for Nonmetal Composites and Functional Materials, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaofang Wang
- State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base for Nonmetal Composites and Functional Materials, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, People's Republic of China
| | - Shan Lei
- State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base for Nonmetal Composites and Functional Materials, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhaotao Shi
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, People's Republic of China
| | - Jia Zhao
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiangqiang Liu
- Research Center of Laser Fusion, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Mianyang 621010, People's Republic of China
| | - Rufang Peng
- State Key Laboratory Cultivation Base for Nonmetal Composites and Functional Materials, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, People's Republic of China
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10
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Lu H, Chen J, Huang H, Zhou M, Zhu Q, Yao SQ, Chai Z, Hu Y. Iron modulates the activity of monoamine oxidase B in SH-SY5Y cells. Biometals 2017; 30:599-607. [PMID: 28685208 DOI: 10.1007/s10534-017-0030-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Both monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) and iron accumulation are associated with neurologic diseases including Parkinson's disease. However, the association of iron with MAO-B activity was poorly understood. Here we took advantage of highly sensitive and specific fluorescence probes to examine the change in MAO-B activity in human dopaminergic neuroblastoma (SH-SY5Y) cells upon iron exposure. Both ferric and ferrous ions could significantly enhance the activity of MAO-B, instead of MAO-A, in SH-SY5Y cells. In addition, iron-induced increase in MAO-B probe fluorescence could be prevented by pargyline and other newly developed MAO-B inhibitors, suggesting that it was MAO-B activity-dependent. These findings may suggest MAO-B is an important sensor in iron-stressed neuronal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiru Lu
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Multidisciplinary Research Division, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jun Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Multidisciplinary Research Division, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing, 100049, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Hui Huang
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Multidisciplinary Research Division, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing, 100049, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Mengxue Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Multidisciplinary Research Division, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing, 100049, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Qing Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Synthesis of Zhejiang Province, College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Chaowang Road 18, Hangzhou, 310014, China.
| | - Shao Q Yao
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - Zhifang Chai
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Multidisciplinary Research Division, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing, 100049, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Yi Hu
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Multidisciplinary Research Division, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Beijing, 100049, China. .,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
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11
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Iron-induced generation of mitochondrial ROS depends on AMPK activity. Biometals 2017; 30:623-628. [PMID: 28608291 DOI: 10.1007/s10534-017-0023-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2017] [Accepted: 05/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Deregulated iron homeostasis is generally believed to be implicated in neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease. Nevertheless, it is not fully understood how iron overload can elicit neuronal cell damage. Here we examined mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in human dopaminergic neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells upon iron exposure. A relatively high concentration of iron could significantly increase mitochondrial ROS levels in SH-SY5Y cells. Pharmacological activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) almost completely inhibited the effect of iron on mitochondrial ROS. By contrast, AMPK inhibition aggravated the neurotoxicity of iron and enhanced the production of mitochondrial ROS. Collectively, these findings suggested that excess iron may be able to perturb mitochondrial function, and AMPK activity is important for the association of iron and mitochondria.
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12
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Eid R, Arab NTT, Greenwood MT. Iron mediated toxicity and programmed cell death: A review and a re-examination of existing paradigms. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2016; 1864:399-430. [PMID: 27939167 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2016.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2016] [Revised: 11/08/2016] [Accepted: 12/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Iron is an essential micronutrient that is problematic for biological systems since it is toxic as it generates free radicals by interconverting between ferrous (Fe2+) and ferric (Fe3+) forms. Additionally, even though iron is abundant, it is largely insoluble so cells must treat biologically available iron as a valuable commodity. Thus elaborate mechanisms have evolved to absorb, re-cycle and store iron while minimizing toxicity. Focusing on rarely encountered situations, most of the existing literature suggests that iron toxicity is common. A more nuanced examination clearly demonstrates that existing regulatory processes are more than adequate to limit the toxicity of iron even in response to iron overload. Only under pathological or artificially harsh situations of exposure to excess iron does it become problematic. Here we review iron metabolism and its toxicity as well as the literature demonstrating that intracellular iron is not toxic but a stress responsive programmed cell death-inducing second messenger.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rawan Eid
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Nagla T T Arab
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Michael T Greenwood
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Royal Military College of Canada, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.
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13
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Parkinson's Disease: The Mitochondria-Iron Link. PARKINSONS DISEASE 2016; 2016:7049108. [PMID: 27293957 PMCID: PMC4886095 DOI: 10.1155/2016/7049108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Revised: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondrial dysfunction, iron accumulation, and oxidative damage are conditions often found in damaged brain areas of Parkinson's disease. We propose that a causal link exists between these three events. Mitochondrial dysfunction results not only in increased reactive oxygen species production but also in decreased iron-sulfur cluster synthesis and unorthodox activation of Iron Regulatory Protein 1 (IRP1), a key regulator of cell iron homeostasis. In turn, IRP1 activation results in iron accumulation and hydroxyl radical-mediated damage. These three occurrences-mitochondrial dysfunction, iron accumulation, and oxidative damage-generate a positive feedback loop of increased iron accumulation and oxidative stress. Here, we review the evidence that points to a link between mitochondrial dysfunction and iron accumulation as early events in the development of sporadic and genetic cases of Parkinson's disease. Finally, an attempt is done to contextualize the possible relationship between mitochondria dysfunction and iron dyshomeostasis. Based on published evidence, we propose that iron chelation-by decreasing iron-associated oxidative damage and by inducing cell survival and cell-rescue pathways-is a viable therapy for retarding this cycle.
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