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Seneci L, Zdenek CN, Chowdhury A, Rodrigues CFB, Neri-Castro E, Bénard-Valle M, Alagón A, Fry BG. A Clot Twist: Extreme Variation in Coagulotoxicity Mechanisms in Mexican Neotropical Rattlesnake Venoms. Front Immunol 2021; 12:612846. [PMID: 33815366 PMCID: PMC8011430 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.612846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Rattlesnakes are a diverse clade of pit vipers (snake family Viperidae, subfamily Crotalinae) that consists of numerous medically significant species. We used validated in vitro assays measuring venom-induced clotting time and strength of any clots formed in human plasma and fibrinogen to assess the coagulotoxic activity of the four medically relevant Mexican rattlesnake species Crotalus culminatus, C. mictlantecuhtli, C. molossus, and C. tzabcan. We report the first evidence of true procoagulant activity by Neotropical rattlesnake venom in Crotalus culminatus. This species presented a strong ontogenetic coagulotoxicity dichotomy: neonates were strongly procoagulant via Factor X activation, whereas adults were pseudo-procoagulant in that they converted fibrinogen into weak, unstable fibrin clots that rapidly broke down, thereby likely contributing to net anticoagulation through fibrinogen depletion. The other species did not activate clotting factors or display an ontogenetic dichotomy, but depleted fibrinogen levels by cleaving fibrinogen either in a destructive (non-clotting) manner or via a pseudo-procoagulant mechanism. We also assessed the neutralization of these venoms by available antivenom and enzyme-inhibitors to provide knowledge for the design of evidence-based treatment strategies for envenomated patients. One of the most frequently used Mexican antivenoms (Bioclon Antivipmyn®) failed to neutralize the potent procoagulant toxic action of neonate C. culminatus venom, highlighting limitations in snakebite treatment for this species. However, the metalloprotease inhibitor Prinomastat substantially thwarted the procoagulant venom activity, while 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid (DMPS) was much less effective. These results confirm that venom-induced Factor X activation (a procoagulant action) is driven by metalloproteases, while also suggesting Prinomastat as a more promising potential adjunct treatment than DMPS for this species (with the caveat that in vivo studies are necessary to confirm this potential clinical use). Conversely, the serine protease inhibitor 4-(2-aminoethyl)benzenesulfonyl fluoride hydrochloride (AEBSF) inhibited the direct fibrinogen cleaving actions of C. mictlantecuhtli venom, thereby revealing that the pseudo-procoagulant action is driven by kallikrein-type serine proteases. Thus, this differential ontogenetic variation in coagulotoxicity patterns poses intriguing questions. Our results underscore the need for further research into Mexican rattlesnake venom activity, and also highlights potential limitations of current antivenom treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Seneci
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia.,Institute of Biology Leiden (IBL), Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
| | - Abhinandan Chowdhury
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia.,Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Caroline F B Rodrigues
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia.,Laboratório de Herpetologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Edgar Neri-Castro
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Mexico
| | - Melisa Bénard-Valle
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Autónoma de México, Cuernavaca, Mexico
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
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Chowdhury A, Zdenek CN, Dobson JS, Bourke LA, Soria R, Fry BG. Clinical implications of differential procoagulant toxicity of the palearctic viperid genus Macrovipera, and the relative neutralization efficacy of antivenoms and enzyme inhibitors. Toxicol Lett 2021; 340:77-88. [PMID: 33412251 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2020.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Species within the viperid genus Macrovipera are some of the most dangerous snakes in the Eurasian region, injecting copious amounts of potent venom. Despite their medical importance, the pathophysiological actions of their venoms have been neglected. Particularly poorly known are the coagulotoxic effects and thus the underlying mechanisms of lethal coagulopathy. In order to fill this knowledge gap, we ascertained the effects of venom upon human plasma for Macrovipera lebetina cernovi, M. l. lebetina, M. l. obtusa, M. l. turanica, and M. schweizeri using diverse coagulation analysing protocols. All five were extremely potent in their ability to promote clotting but varied in their relative activation of Factor X, being equipotent in this study to the venom of the better studied, and lethal, species Daboia russelii. The Insoserp European viper antivenom was shown to be highly effective against all the Macrovipera venoms, but performed poorly against the D. russelii venom. Reciprocally, while Daboia antivenoms performed well against D. russelii venom, they failed against Macrovipera venom. Thus despite the two genera sharing a venom phenotype (Factor X activation) driven by the same toxin type (P-IIId snake venom metalloproteases), the surface biochemistries of the toxins differed significantly enough to impede antivenom cross- neutralization. The differences in venom biochemistry were reflected in coagulation co-factor dependence. While both genera were absolutely dependent upon calcium for the activation of Factor X, dependence upon phospholipid varied. The Macrovipera venoms had low levels of dependence upon phospholipid while the Daboia venom was three times more dependent upon phospholipid for the activation of Factor X. This suggests that the sites on the molecular surface responsible for phospholipid dependence, are the same differential sites that prevent inter-genera antivenom cross- neutralization. Due to cold-chain requirements, antivenoms may not be stocked in rural settings where the need is at the greatest. Thus we tested the efficacy of enzyme inhibitor Prinomastat as a field-deployable treatment to stabilise patients while being transported to antivenom stocks, and showed that it was extremely effective in blocking the Factor X activating pathophysiological actions. Marimastat however was less effective. These results thus not only shed light on the coagulopathic mechanisms of Macrovipera venoms, but also provide data critical for evidence-based design of snakebite management strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhinandan Chowdhury
- Toxin Evolution Lab, School of Biological Science, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia; Department of Biochemistry & Microbiology, North South University, Dhaka, 1229, Bangladesh
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Toxin Evolution Lab, School of Biological Science, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - James S Dobson
- Toxin Evolution Lab, School of Biological Science, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Lachlan A Bourke
- Toxin Evolution Lab, School of Biological Science, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Raul Soria
- Inosan Biopharma, S.A. Arbea Campus Empresarial, Edificio 2, Planta 2, Carretera Fuencarral a Alcobendas, Km 3.8, 28108, Madrid, Spain
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Toxin Evolution Lab, School of Biological Science, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
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The anticoagulant effect of Apis mellifera phospholipase A 2 is inhibited by CORM-2 via a carbon monoxide-independent mechanism. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2020; 49:100-107. [PMID: 31679116 DOI: 10.1007/s11239-019-01980-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Bee venom phospholipase A2 (PLA2) has potential for significant morbidity. Ruthenium (Ru)-based carbon monoxide releasing molecules (CORM) inhibit snake venoms that are anticoagulant and contain PLA2. In addition to modulating heme-bearing proteins with carbon monoxide, these CORM generate reactive Ru species that form adducts with histamine residues resulting in changes in protein function. This study sought to identify anticoagulant properties of bee venom PLA2 via catalysis of plasma phospholipids required for thrombin generation. Another goal was to determine if Ru-based CORM inhibit bee venom PLA2 via carbon monoxide release or via potential binding of reactive Ru species to a key histidine residue in the catalytic site of the enzyme. Anticoagulant activity of bee venom PLA2 was assessed via thrombelastography with normal plasma. Bee venom PLA2 was then exposed to different CORM and a metheme forming agent and anticoagulant activity was reassessed. Using Ru, boron and manganese-based CORM and a metheme forming agent, it was demonstrated that it was unlikely that carbon monoxide interaction with a heme group attached to PLA2 was responsible for inhibition of anticoagulant activity by Ru-based CORM. Exposure of PLA2 to a Ru-based CORM in the presence of histidine-rich human albumin resulted in loss of inhibition of PLA2. Ru-based CORM likely inhibit bee venom PLA2 anticoagulant activity via formation of reactive Ru species that bind to histidine residues of the enzyme.
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Harris RJ, Zdenek CN, Debono J, Harrich D, Fry BG. Evolutionary Interpretations of Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Targeting Venom Effects by a Clade of Asian Viperidae Snakes. Neurotox Res 2020; 38:312-318. [PMID: 32394055 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-020-00211-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Ecological variability among closely related species provides an opportunity for evolutionary comparative studies. Therefore, to investigate the origin and evolution of neurotoxicity in Asian viperid snakes, we tested the venoms of Azemiops feae, Calloselasma rhodostoma, Deinagkistrodon acutus, Tropidolaeums subannulatus, and T. wagleri for their relative specificity and potency upon the amphibian, lizard, bird, rodent, and human α-1 (neuromuscular) nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. We utilised a biolayer interferometry assay to test the binding affinity of these pit viper venoms to orthosteric mimotopes of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors binding region from a diversity of potential prey types. The Tropidolaemus venoms were much more potent than the other species tested, which is consistent with the greater prey escape potential in arboreal niches. Intriguingly, the venom of C. rhodostoma showed neurotoxic binding to the α-1 mimotopes, a feature not known previously for this species. The lack of prior knowledge of neurotoxicity in this species is consistent with our results due to the bias in rodent studies and human bite reports, whilst this venom had a greater binding affinity toward amphibian and diapsid α-1 targets. The other large terrestrial species, D. acutus, did not display any meaningful levels of neurotoxicity. These results demonstrate that whilst small peptide neurotoxins are a basal trait of these snakes, it has been independently amplified on two separate occasions, once in Azemiops and again in Tropidolaemus, and with Calloselasma representing a third possible amplification of this trait. These results also point to broader sources of novel neuroactive peptides with the potential for use as lead compounds in drug design and discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Harris
- Venom Evolution Lab, University of Queensland, School of Biological Sciences, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Venom Evolution Lab, University of Queensland, School of Biological Sciences, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Jordan Debono
- Venom Evolution Lab, University of Queensland, School of Biological Sciences, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - David Harrich
- QIMR Berghofer, Royal Brisbane Hospital, Brisbane, QLD, 4029, Australia
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, University of Queensland, School of Biological Sciences, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia.
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Nielsen VG. Ruthenium, Not Carbon Monoxide, Inhibits the Procoagulant Activity of Atheris, Echis, and Pseudonaja Venoms. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21082970. [PMID: 32340168 PMCID: PMC7216138 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21082970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2020] [Revised: 04/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The demonstration that carbon monoxide releasing molecules (CORMs) affect experimental systems by the release of carbon monoxide, and not via the interaction of the inactivated CORM, has been an accepted paradigm for decades. However, it has recently been documented that a radical intermediate formed during carbon monoxide release from ruthenium (Ru)-based CORM (CORM-2) interacts with histidine and can inactivate bee phospholipase A2 activity. Using a thrombelastographic based paradigm to assess procoagulant activity in human plasma, this study tested the hypothesis that a Ru-based radical and not carbon monoxide was responsible for CORM-2 mediated inhibition of Atheris,Echis, and Pseudonaja species snake venoms. Assessment of the inhibitory effects of ruthenium chloride (RuCl3) on snake venom activity was also determined. CORM-2 mediated inhibition of the three venoms was found to be independent of carbon monoxide release, as the presence of histidine-rich albumin abrogated CORM-2 inhibition. Exposure to RuCl3 had little effect on Atheris venom activity, but Echis and Pseudonaja venom had procoagulant activity significantly reduced. In conclusion, a Ru-based radical and ion inhibited procoagulant snake venoms, not carbon monoxide. These data continue to add to our mechanistic understanding of how Ru-based molecules can modulate hemotoxic venoms, and these results can serve as a rationale to focus on perhaps other, complementary compounds containing Ru as antivenom agents in vitro and, ultimately, in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vance G Nielsen
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA
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Anticoagulant activity of krait, coral snake, and cobra neurotoxic venoms with diverse proteomes are inhibited by carbon monoxide. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 2020; 30:379-384. [PMID: 31415248 DOI: 10.1097/mbc.0000000000000842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A phenomena of interest is the in vitro anticoagulant effects of neurotoxins found in elapid venoms that kill by paralysis. These enzymes include phospholipase A2 (PLA2), and it has recently been demonstrated that carbon monoxide inhibits the PLA2-dependent neurotoxin contained in Mojave rattlesnake type A venom. The purpose of this investigation was to assess if the anticoagulant activity of elapid venoms containing PLA2 and/or three finger toxins could be inhibited by carbon monoxide. METHODS Venoms collected from Bungarus multicinctus, Micrurus fulvius, and five Naja species were exposed to carbon monoxide via carbon monoxide releasing molecule-2 prior to placement into human plasma. Coagulation kinetics were assessed via thrombelastography. RESULTS Compared with plasma without venom addition, all venoms had significant anticoagulant effects, with a 160-fold range of concentrations having similar anticoagulant effects in a species-specific manner. Carbon monoxide significantly inhibited the anticoagulant effect of all venoms tested, but inhibition was not complete in all cases. CONCLUSION Given that individual neurotoxin activity often depends on intact activity that includes anticoagulant action, it may be possible that carbon monoxide inhibits neurotoxicity. Future investigation is justified to assess such carbon monoxide mediated inhibition with purified neurotoxins in vitro and in vivo.
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Nielsen VG, Frank N. The kallikrein-like activity of Heloderma venom is inhibited by carbon monoxide. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2019; 47:533-539. [PMID: 30955141 DOI: 10.1007/s11239-019-01853-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Lizards in the genus Heloderma are the most ancient venomous reptiles, with a traceable lineage nearly 100 million years old. The proteome of the venom of three of the remaining species (Heloderma suspectum, H. exasperatum, H. horridum) are very conserved, with kallikrein-like activity present to cause critical hypotension to immobilize and outright kill prey. Kallikrein-like activity would be expected to activate the contact protein pathway of coagulation, which would be detectable with thrombelastography in human plasma. Thus, it was proposed to determine if kallikrein-like activity could be detected with thrombelastography, and if this activity could be inhibited by carbon monoxide (CO) via a putative heme-based mechanism. Procoagulant activity of each venom was assessed via thrombelastography with normal plasma, and kallikrein-like activity confirmed with FX-depleted plasma. Venom was then exposed to carbon monoxide releasing molecule-2 (CORM-2) or its inactive releasing molecule to assess CO inhibition. All three venoms demonstrated kallikrein-like activity with the same potency and inhibition of activity by CO. In conclusion, the present work documented that procoagulant, kallikrein-like activity containing venoms of the oldest species of venomous reptiles was inhibited by CO, potentially via heme modulation. This is also the first identification and characterization of a kallikrein-like enzyme utilizing coagulation factor-depleted plasma to assess venom that inflicts hypotension. Future investigations will continue to define the vulnerability of venom enzymatic activities to CO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vance G Nielsen
- Department of Anesthesiology, The University of Arizona College of Medicine, 1501 North Campbell Avenue, P.O. Box 245114, Tucson, AZ, 85724-5114, USA.
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De Novo Assessment and Review of Pan-American Pit Viper Anticoagulant and Procoagulant Venom Activities via Kinetomic Analyses. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11020094. [PMID: 30736322 PMCID: PMC6409967 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11020094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Revised: 01/25/2019] [Accepted: 02/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Snakebite with hemotoxic venom continues to be a major source of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Our laboratory has characterized the coagulopathy that occurs in vitro in human plasma via specialized thrombelastographic methods to determine if venoms are predominantly anticoagulant or procoagulant in nature. Further, the exposure of venoms to carbon monoxide (CO) or O-phenylhydroxylamine (PHA) modulate putative heme groups attached to key enzymes has also provided mechanistic insight into the multiple different activities contained in one venom. The present investigation used these techniques to characterize fourteen different venoms obtained from snakes from North, Central, and South America. Further, we review and present previous thrombelastographic-based analyses of eighteen other species from the Americas. Venoms were found to be anticoagulant and procoagulant (thrombin-like activity, thrombin-generating activity). All prospectively assessed venom activities were determined to be heme-modulated except two, wherein both CO and its carrier molecule were found to inhibit activity, while PHA did not affect activity (Bothriechis schlegelii and Crotalus organus abyssus). When divided by continent, North and Central America contained venoms with mostly anticoagulant activities, several thrombin-like activities, with only two thrombin-generating activity containing venoms. In contrast, most venoms with thrombin-generating activity were located in South America, derived from Bothrops species. In conclusion, the kinetomic profiles of venoms obtained from thirty-two Pan-American Pit Viper species are presented. It is anticipated that this approach will be utilized to identify clinically relevant hemotoxic venom enzymatic activity and assess the efficacy of locally delivered CO or systemically administered antivenoms.
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