Systematic approach for the formulation and optimization of atorvastatin loaded solid lipid NANOAPARTICLES using response surface methodology

Role of Silver Nanoparticles for the Control of Anthelmintic Resistance in Small and Large Ruminants

Helminths are considered a significant threat to the livestock industry, as they cause substantial economic losses in small and large ruminant farming. Their morbidity and mortality rates are also increasing day by day as they have zoonotic importance. Anthelmintic drugs have been used for controlling these parasites; unfortunately, due to the development of resistance of these drugs in helminths (parasites), especially in three major classes like benzimidazoles, nicotinic agonists, and macrocyclic lactones, their use is becoming very low. Although new anthelmintics are being developed, the process is time-consuming and costly. As a result, nanoparticles are being explored as an alternative to anthelmintics. Nanoparticles enhance drug effectiveness, drug delivery, and target specificity and have no resistance against parasites. Different types of nanoparticles are used, such as organic (chitosan) and inorganic (gold, silver, zinc oxide, iron oxide, and nickel oxide). One of them, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), has unique properties in various fields, especially parasitology. AgNPs are synthesized from three primary methods: physical, chemical, and biological. Their primary mechanism of action is causing stress through the production of ROS that destroys cells, organs, proteins, and DNA parasites. The present review is about AgNPs, their mode of action, and their role in controlling anthelmintic resistance against small and large ruminants.

Metallic Nanoparticles and Core-Shell Nanosystems in the Treatment, Diagnosis, and Prevention of Parasitic Diseases

The usage of nanotechnology in the fight against parasitic diseases is in the early stages of development, but it brings hopes that this new field will provide a solution to target the early stages of parasitosis, compensate for the lack of vaccines for most parasitic diseases, and also provide new treatment options for diseases in which parasites show increased resistance to current drugs. The huge physicochemical diversity of nanomaterials developed so far, mainly for antibacterial and anti-cancer therapies, requires additional studies to determine their antiparasitic potential. When designing metallic nanoparticles (MeNPs) and specific nanosystems, such as complexes of MeNPs, with the shell of attached drugs, several physicochemical properties need to be considered. The most important are: size, shape, surface charge, type of surfactants that control their dispersion, and shell molecules that should assure specific molecular interaction with targeted molecules of parasites' cells. Therefore, it can be expected that the development of antiparasitic drugs using strategies provided by nanotechnology and the use of nanomaterials for diagnostic purposes will soon provide new and effective methods of antiparasitic therapy and effective diagnostic tools that will improve the prevention and reduce the morbidity and mortality caused by these diseases.

Nanotechnology: A promising strategy for the control of parasitic infections

Annually 3.5 billion people are affected by the parasitic infections that results around 200,000 deaths per annum. Major diseases occur due to the neglected tropical parasites. Variety of methods have been used to treat the parasitic infections but now these methods have become ineffective due to the development of resistance in the parasites and some other side effects of traditional treatment methods. Previous methods include use of chemotherapeutic agents and ethnobotanicals for the treatment of parasites. Parasites have developed resistance against the chemotherapeutic agents. A major problem related to Ethnobotanicals is the unequal availability of drug at the target site which is responsible for the low efficacy of drug. Nanotechnology technology involves the manipulation of matter on a nanoscale level and has the potential to enhance the efficacy and safety of existing drugs, develop new treatments, and improve diagnostic methods for parasitic infections. Nanoparticles can be designed to selectively target parasites while minimizing toxicity to the host, and they can also be used to improve drug delivery and increase drug stability. Some important nanotechnology-based tools for parasitic control include nanoparticle-based drug delivery, nanoparticle diagnostics, nanoparticle vaccines, nanoparticle insecticides. Nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the field of parasitic control by providing new methods for detection, prevention and treatment of parasitic infections. This review discusses the current state of nanotechnology-based approaches for controlling parasitic infections and highlights their potential to revolutionize the field of parasitology.

Nanoparticles: Synthesis and Their Role as Potential Drug Candidates for the Treatment of Parasitic Diseases

Protozoa, helminths and ectoparasites are the major groups of parasites distributed worldwide. Currently, these parasites are treated with chemotherapeutic antiprotozoal drugs, anti-helminthic and anti-ectoparasitic agents, but, with the passage of time, resistance to these drugs has developed due to overuse. In this scenario, nanoparticles are proving to be a major breakthrough in the treatment and control of parasitic diseases. In the last decade, there has been enormous development in the field of nanomedicine for parasitic control. Gold and silver nanoparticles have shown promising results in the treatments of various types of parasitic infections. These nanoparticles are synthesized through the use of various conventional and molecular technologies and have shown great efficacy. They work in different ways, that include damaging the parasite membrane, DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) disruption, protein synthesis inhibition and free-radical formation. These agents are effective against intracellular parasites as well. Other nanoparticles, such as iron, nickel, zinc and platinum, have also shown good results in the treatment and control of parasitic infections. It is hoped that this research subject will become the future of modern drug development. This review summarizes the methods that are used to synthesize nanoparticles and their possible mechanisms of action against parasites.

Preparation, characterization, and application of modified magnetic biochar for the removal of benzotriazole: process optimization, isotherm and kinetic studies, and adsorbent regeneration

The adsorption of benzotriazole (BTA) by chemically modified magnetic biochar (MMBC) as a cheap and abundant biosorbent was investigated and optimized using response surface methodology (RSM). Initially, the MMBC composite was synthesized and characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, and Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) techniques. The characterization results confirmed the existence of Fe₃O₄ in the composite structure, which had uniformly dispersed over biochar (BC) with porous texture. Moreover, the presence of Zn and Cl elements in EDX analysis indicated that the magnetic biochar (MBC) had been modified successfully. The effects of chemical modification methods on the adsorption capacity of magnetic biochar were investigated. Maximum BTA removal efficiency was demonstrated by MMBC, modifying using ZnCl₂ (>99%). Optimization was carried out based on reaction time, BTA concentration and the concentration of adsorbent. Optimum experimental conditions for the removal of BTA from aqueous solutions were found to be 35 min of reaction time, 0.55 g/L of adsorbent, and 50 mg/L of initial BTA concentration. At these optimal conditions, the predicted BTA adsorption efficiency was 92.6%. The adsorption process followed the Avrami fractional-order reaction kinetic and the Langmuir adsorption isotherm with the maximum adsorption capacity of 563.1 mg/g. The values of thermodynamic parameters demonstrated that the adsorption of BTA on ZnCl₂-MBC is endothermic and spontaneous. Under optimum usage of MMBC, the adsorptive removal efficiency of BTA non-significantly decreased from 99.2 to 93.9% after the 5th cycle. Thus, MMBC can be recommended as an environmentally friendly and cost-effective adsorbent to remove micropollutants from water.

Development of a Mosquito Repellent Formulation Based on Nanostructured Lipid Carriers

Arboviral diseases are a threat to global public health systems, with recent data suggesting that around 40% of the world's population is at risk of contracting arboviruses. The use of mosquito repellents is an appropriate strategy to avoid humans coming into contact with vectors transmitting these viruses. However, the cost associated with daily applications of repellents can make their use unfeasible for the low-income populations that most need protection. Therefore, the development of effective formulations offers a way to expand access to this means of individual protection. Consequently, research efforts have focused on formulations with smaller quantities of active agents and sustained release technology, aiming to reduce re-applications, toxicity, and cost. The present study investigates the development of nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) loaded with a mixture of the compounds icaridin (synthetic) and geraniol (natural), incorporated in cellulose hydrogel. The NLCs were prepared by the emulsion/solvent evaporation method and were submitted to physicochemical characterization as a function of time (at 0, 15, 30, and 60 days). The prepared system presented an average particle size of 252 ± 5 nm, with encapsulation efficiency of 99% for both of the active compounds. The stability profile revealed that the change of particle size was not significant (p > 0.05), indicating high stability of the system. Rheological characterization of the gels containing NLCs showed that all formulations presented pseudoplastic and thixotropic behavior, providing satisfactory spreadability and long shelf life. Morphological analysis using atomic force microscopy (AFM) revealed the presence of spherical nanoparticles (252 ± 5 nm) in the cellulose gel matrix. Permeation assays showed low fluxes of the active agents through a Strat-M^® membrane, with low permeability coefficients, indicating that the repellents would be retained on the surface to which they are applied, rather than permeating the tissue. These findings open perspectives for the use of hybrid formulations consisting of gels containing nanoparticles that incorporate repellents effective against arthropod-borne virus. These systems could potentially provide improvements considering the issues of effectiveness, toxicity, and safety.

Nanoparticles for antiparasitic drug delivery

As an emerging novel drug carrier, nanoparticles provide a promising way for effective treatment of parasitic diseases by overcoming the shortcomings of low bioavailability, poor cellular permeability, nonspecific distribution and rapid elimination of antiparasitic drugs from the body. In recent years, some kinds of ideal nanocarriers have been developed for antiparasitic drug delivery. In this review, the progress of the enhanced antiparasitic effects of different nanoparticles payload and their influencing factors were firstly summarized. Secondly, the transport and disposition process in the body were reviewed. Finally, the challenges and prospects of nanoparticles for antiparasitic drug delivery were proposed. This review will help scholars to understand the development trend of nanoparticles in the treatment of parasitic diseases and explore strategies in the development of more efficient nanocarriers to overcome the difficulty in the treatment of parasite infections in the future.