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Biniari G, Markatos C, Nteli A, Tzoupis H, Simal C, Vlamis-Gardikas A, Karageorgos V, Pirmettis I, Petrou P, Venihaki M, Liapakis G, Tselios T. Rational Design, Synthesis and Binding Affinity Studies of Anthraquinone Derivatives Conjugated to Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) Analogues towards Selective Immunosuppression of Hormone-Dependent Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:15232. [PMID: 37894912 PMCID: PMC10607160 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242015232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is pivotal in regulating human reproduction and fertility through its specific receptors. Among these, gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptor type I (GnRHR I), which is a member of the G-protein-coupled receptor family, is expressed on the surface of both healthy and malignant cells. Its presence in cancer cells has positioned this receptor as a primary target for the development of novel anti-cancer agents. Moreover, the extensive regulatory functions of GnRH have underscored decapeptide as a prominent vehicle for targeted drug delivery, which is accomplished through the design of appropriate conjugates. On this basis, a rationally designed series of anthraquinone/mitoxantrone-GnRH conjugates (con1-con8) has been synthesized herein. Their in vitro binding affinities range from 0.06 to 3.42 nM, with six of them (con2-con7) demonstrating higher affinities for GnRH than the established drug leuprolide (0.64 nM). Among the mitoxantrone based GnRH conjugates, con3 and con7 show the highest affinities at 0.07 and 0.06 nM, respectively, while the disulfide bond present in the conjugates is found to be readily reduced by the thioredoxin (Trx) system. These findings are promising for further pharmacological evaluation of the synthesized conjugates with the prospect of performing future clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Biniari
- Department of Chemistry, University of Patras, 26504 Rion, Greece; (G.B.); (A.N.); (H.T.); (C.S.); (A.V.-G.)
| | - Christos Markatos
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece; (C.M.); (V.K.)
| | - Agathi Nteli
- Department of Chemistry, University of Patras, 26504 Rion, Greece; (G.B.); (A.N.); (H.T.); (C.S.); (A.V.-G.)
| | - Haralambos Tzoupis
- Department of Chemistry, University of Patras, 26504 Rion, Greece; (G.B.); (A.N.); (H.T.); (C.S.); (A.V.-G.)
| | - Carmen Simal
- Department of Chemistry, University of Patras, 26504 Rion, Greece; (G.B.); (A.N.); (H.T.); (C.S.); (A.V.-G.)
| | - Alexios Vlamis-Gardikas
- Department of Chemistry, University of Patras, 26504 Rion, Greece; (G.B.); (A.N.); (H.T.); (C.S.); (A.V.-G.)
| | - Vlasios Karageorgos
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece; (C.M.); (V.K.)
| | - Ioannis Pirmettis
- Institute of Nuclear & Radiological Sciences & Technology, Energy & Safety, National Centre for Scientific Research “Demokritos”, 15341 Athens, Greece; (I.P.); (P.P.)
| | - Panagiota Petrou
- Institute of Nuclear & Radiological Sciences & Technology, Energy & Safety, National Centre for Scientific Research “Demokritos”, 15341 Athens, Greece; (I.P.); (P.P.)
| | - Maria Venihaki
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, School of Medicine, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece;
| | - George Liapakis
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece; (C.M.); (V.K.)
| | - Theodore Tselios
- Department of Chemistry, University of Patras, 26504 Rion, Greece; (G.B.); (A.N.); (H.T.); (C.S.); (A.V.-G.)
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Beheshtirouy S, Mirzaei F, Eyvazi S, Tarhriz V. Recent Advances in Therapeutic Peptides for Breast Cancer Treatment. Curr Protein Pept Sci 2021; 22:74-88. [PMID: 33208071 DOI: 10.2174/1389203721999201117123616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Breast cancer is a heterogeneous malignancy and is the second leading cause of mortality among women around the world. Increasing the resistance to anti-cancer drugs in breast cancer cells persuades researchers to search the novel therapeutic approaches for the treatment of this malignancy. Among the novel methods, therapeutic peptides that target and disrupt tumor cells have been of great interest. Therapeutic peptides are short amino acid monomer chains with high specificity to bind and modulate a protein interaction of interest. Several advantages of peptides, such as specific binding on tumor cells surface, low molecular weight, and low toxicity on normal cells, make the peptides appealing therapeutic agents against solid tumors, particularly breast cancer. Also, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) describes therapeutic peptides as a suitable candidate for the treatment of drug-resistant breast cancer. In this review, we attempt to review the different therapeutic peptides against breast cancer cells that can be used in the treatment and diagnosis of the malignancy. Meanwhile, we presented an overview of peptide vaccines that have been developed for the treatment of breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samad Beheshtirouy
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Imam Reza Hospital, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Farhad Mirzaei
- Department of Neurosurgery, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Shirin Eyvazi
- Department of Biology, Tabriz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Vahideh Tarhriz
- Molecular Medicine Research Center, Biomedicine Institute, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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Role of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) in Ovarian Cancer. Cells 2021; 10:cells10020437. [PMID: 33670761 PMCID: PMC7922220 DOI: 10.3390/cells10020437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The hypothalamus–pituitary–gonadal (HPG) axis is the endocrine regulation system that controls the woman’s cycle. The gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) plays the central role. In addition to the gonadotrophic cells of the pituitary, GnRH receptors are expressed in other reproductive organs, such as the ovary and in tumors originating from the ovary. In ovarian cancer, GnRH is involved in the regulation of proliferation and metastasis. The effects on ovarian tumors can be indirect or direct. GnRH acts indirectly via the HPG axis and directly via GnRH receptors on the surface of ovarian cancer cells. In this systematic review, we will give an overview of the role of GnRH in ovarian cancer development, progression and therapy.
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Tzoupis H, Nteli A, Androutsou ME, Tselios T. Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone and GnRH Receptor: Structure, Function and Drug Development. Curr Med Chem 2021; 27:6136-6158. [PMID: 31309882 DOI: 10.2174/0929867326666190712165444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2019] [Revised: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 06/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) is a key element in sexual maturation and regulation of the reproductive cycle in the human organism. GnRH interacts with the pituitary cells through the activation of the Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone Receptors (GnRHR). Any impairments/dysfunctions of the GnRH-GnRHR complex lead to the development of various cancer types and disorders. Furthermore, the identification of GnRHR as a potential drug target has led to the development of agonist and antagonist molecules implemented in various treatment protocols. The development of these drugs was based on the information derived from the functional studies of GnRH and GnRHR. OBJECTIVE This review aims at shedding light on the versatile function of GnRH and GnRH receptor and offers an apprehensive summary regarding the development of different agonists, antagonists and non-peptide GnRH analogues. CONCLUSION The information derived from these studies can enhance our understanding of the GnRH-GnRHR versatile nature and offer valuable insight into the design of new more potent molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Agathi Nteli
- Department of Chemistry, University of Patras, Rion GR-26504, Greece
| | - Maria-Eleni Androutsou
- Vianex S.A., Tatoiou Str., 18th km Athens-Lamia National Road, Nea Erythrea 14671, Greece
| | - Theodore Tselios
- Department of Chemistry, University of Patras, Rion GR-26504, Greece
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Schally AV, Block NL, Rick FG. Discovery of LHRH and development of LHRH analogs for prostate cancer treatment. Prostate 2017; 77:1036-1054. [PMID: 28449236 DOI: 10.1002/pros.23360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Accepted: 04/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The discovery, isolation, elucidation of structure, synthesis, and initial testing of the neuropeptide hypothalamic luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH), which regulates reproduction, is briefly described. The design, synthesis, and experimental and clinical testing of agonistic analogs of LHRH is extensively reviewed focusing on the development of new methods for the treatment of prostate cancer. Subsequent development of antagonistic analogs of LHRH is then faithfully recounted with special emphasis on therapy of prostate cancer and BPH. The concepts of targeted therapy to peptide receptors on tumors are re-examined and the development of the cytotoxic analogs of LHRH and their status is reviewed. The endeavor to develop better therapies for prostate cancer, based on LHRH analogs, guided much of our work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew V Schally
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center and South Florida Veterans Affairs Foundation for Research and Education, Miami, Florida
- Department of Pathology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
- Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Norman L Block
- Department of Pathology, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
- Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida
| | - Ferenc G Rick
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center and South Florida Veterans Affairs Foundation for Research and Education, Miami, Florida
- Department of Urology, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, Florida
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Deivaraju C, Temple HT, Block N, Robinson P, Schally AV. LHRH receptor expression in sarcomas of bone and soft tissue. Horm Mol Biol Clin Investig 2017; 28:105-111. [PMID: 27639272 DOI: 10.1515/hmbci-2016-0001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
AIM Luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) is a neurohormone, secreted by the hypothalamus, which regulates the secretion of gonadotropins, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) from the pituitary. LHRH acts by binding to receptors located in the pituitary gland. These receptors (LHRH receptors) have also been found in the cytoplasm of many tumor cells that involve both the reproductive and non-reproductive organs. These receptors have been demonstrated in prostate and breast cancers, endometrial carcinomas, renal cell carcinoma, lymphoma, carcinoma of liver, pancreas and skin. So far, the expression of LHRH receptors on sarcomas (i.e. malignant tumors of mesenchymal origin) has not been studied, except for endometrial sarcomas. It has also been demonstrated that both LHRH agonists and antagonists can down-regulate these receptors and thus inhibit these tumor cells. Another major therapeutic implication is that these receptors can be targeted specifically by peptides conjugated to anti-cancer drugs. The purpose of this study was to determine if LHRH receptors are expressed in primary and/or metastatic sarcomas of human origin. METHODS We looked at LHRH receptor expression in 38 consecutive sarcoma specimens, using immunohistochemistry. The specimens were either from office biopsy or from resected tumor; these were confirmed as sarcomas by histopathological examination. The receptor staining characteristics and the staining intensity were also documented. The pattern of staining was classified either as "focal or diffuse staining of the cytoplasm" and the intensity of staining was graded on a scale from 1+ to 4+. RESULTS Positive receptor staining was seen in 25 of the 38 (66%) specimens. Twelve of the specimens stained diffusely and 13 had focally positive staining. Three tumors had 1+ staining, 10 had 2+ staining, six had 3+ staining, and six tumors had 4+ staining. The tumors included undifferentiated pleomorphic sarcoma, synovial sarcoma, osteosarcoma, myofibroblastic sarcoma, myxofibrosarcoma, liposarcoma, dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans, metastatic chondrosarcoma and chordoma. CONCLUSION Sarcomas express LHRH receptors with a varying incidence and degree. Our study suggests that those sarcomas that are LHRH receptor positive could potentially be treated with targeted chemotherapy.
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Gründker C, Emons G. The Role of Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone in Cancer Cell Proliferation and Metastasis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2017; 8:187. [PMID: 28824547 PMCID: PMC5543040 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2017.00187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In several human malignant tumors of the urogenital tract, including cancers of the endometrium, ovary, urinary bladder, and prostate, it has been possible to identify expression of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and its receptor as part of an autocrine system, which regulates cell proliferation. The expression of GnRH receptor has also been identified in breast cancers and non-reproductive cancers such as pancreatic cancers and glioblastoma. Various investigators have observed dose- and time-dependent growth inhibitory effects of GnRH agonists in cell lines derived from these cancers. GnRH antagonists have also shown marked growth inhibitory effects on most cancer cell lines. This indicates that in the GnRH system in cancer cells, there may not be a dichotomy between GnRH agonists and antagonists. The well-known signaling mechanisms of the GnRH receptor, which are present in pituitary gonadotrophs, are not involved in forwarding the antiproliferative effects of GnRH analogs in cancer cells. Instead, the GnRH receptor activates a phosphotyrosine phosphatase (PTP) and counteracts with the mitogenic signal transduction of growth factor receptors, which results in a reduction of cancer cell proliferation. The PTP activation, which is induced by GnRH, also inhibits G-protein-coupled estrogen receptor 1 (GPER), which is a membrane-bound receptor for estrogens. GPER plays an important role in breast cancers, which do not express the estrogen receptor α (ERα). In metastatic breast, ovarian, and endometrial cancer cells, GnRH reduces cell invasion in vitro, metastasis in vivo, and the increased expression of S100A4 and CYR61. All of these factors play important roles in epithelial-mesenchymal transition. This review will summarize the present state of knowledge about the GnRH receptor and its signaling in human cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Gründker
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Günter Emons
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Georg-August-University, Göttingen, Germany
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Varshosaz J, Hassanzadeh F, Aliabadi HS, Khoraskani FR, Mirian M, Behdadfar B. Targeted delivery of doxorubicin to breast cancer cells by magnetic LHRH chitosan bioconjugated nanoparticles. Int J Biol Macromol 2016; 93:1192-1205. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2016] [Revised: 06/18/2016] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Jaszberenyi M, Schally AV, Block NL, Nadji M, Vidaurre I, Szalontay L, Rick FG. Inhibition of U-87 MG glioblastoma by AN-152 (AEZS-108), a targeted cytotoxic analog of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone. Oncotarget 2013; 4:422-32. [PMID: 23518876 PMCID: PMC3717305 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioblastoma multiforme is the most frequent tumor of the central nervous system in adults and has a dismal clinical outcome, which necessitates the development of new therapeutic approaches. We investigated in vivo the action of the targeted cytotoxic analog of luteinizing hormone releasing hormone, AN-152 (AEZS-108) in nude mice (Ncr nu/nu strain) bearing xenotransplanted U-87 MG glioblastoma tumors. We evaluated in vitro the expression of LHRH receptors, proliferation, apoptosis and the release of oncogenic and tumor suppressor cytokines. Clinical and U-87 MG samples of glioblastoma tumors expressed LHRH receptors. Treatment of nude mice with AN-152, once a week at an intravenous dose of 413 nmol/20g, for six weeks resulted in 76 % reduction in tumor growth. AN-152 nearly completely abolished tumor progression and elicited remarkable apoptosis in vitro. Genomic (RT-PCR) and proteomic (ELISA, Western blot) studies revealed that AN-152 activated apoptosis, as reflected by the changes in p53 and its regulators and substrates, inhibited cell growth, and elicited changes in intermediary filament pattern. AN-152 similarly reestablished contact regulation as demonstrated by expression of adhesion molecules and inhibited vascularization, as reflected by the transcription of angiogenic factors. Our findings suggest that targeted cytotoxic analog AN-152 (AEZS-108) should be considered for a treatment of glioblastomas.
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Limonta P, Manea M. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptors as molecular therapeutic targets in prostate cancer: Current options and emerging strategies. Cancer Treat Rev 2013; 39:647-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ctrv.2012.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2012] [Accepted: 12/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Soudy R, Chen C, Kaur K. Novel peptide-doxorubucin conjugates for targeting breast cancer cells including the multidrug resistant cells. J Med Chem 2013; 56:7564-73. [PMID: 24028446 DOI: 10.1021/jm400647r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The efficacy of chemotherapeutic doxorubucin (Dox) in cancer treatment is limited by two main factors, nonspecific toxicity and the emergence of tumor resistance. To overcome these hurdles, in this study peptide-Dox conjugates were prepared. A decapeptide 18-4a (NH₂-WxEAAYQkFL-CONH₂) [corrected] with high specificity for breast cancer cells and improved proteolytic stability was conjugated to Dox to give peptide-Dox ester (1) and amide (2) conjugates. Cell uptake studies showed that the conjugates were 6-10 times selective for breast cancerous cells (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-435) over noncancerous cells (HUVECs and MCF-10A). Conjugate 1 displayed similar toxicity as free Dox toward the breast cancerous cells and was about 40 times less toxic toward the noncancerous cells and 4-fold more toxic toward the Dox resistant MDA-MB-435-MDR cells than the free Dox. These data suggest that conjugate 1 can be used as a potential prodrug for improving the therapeutic index of Dox and potentially many other cytotoxic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rania Soudy
- Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Alberta , Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2E1, Canada
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Starving Tumors: Inhibition of Glycolysis Reduces Viability of Human Endometrial and Ovarian Cancer Cells and Enhances Antitumor Efficacy of GnRH Receptor-Targeted Therapies. Int J Gynecol Cancer 2013; 23:34-40. [DOI: 10.1097/igc.0b013e318275b028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
ObjectiveIncreased glycolysis for energy production is necessary for survival of tumor cells and thus represents a selective therapeutic target. We have analyzed in vitro whether inhibition of glycolysis can reduce the viability of human endometrial and ovarian cancer cells and whether it can enhance the antitumor efficacy of GnRH receptor-targeted therapies.Materials and MethodsCell viability of ovarian and endometrial cancer cells treated without or with glycolysis inhibitor 2-Deoxy-D-Glucose (2DG) alone or in combination with GnRH-II antagonist [Ac-D2Nal1, D-4Cpa2, D-3Pal3,6,Leu8, D-Ala10]GnRH-II or with cytotoxic GnRH-I agonist AEZS-108 (AN-152) was measured using alamar blue assay. Induction of apoptosis was analyzed using TUNEL assay and quantified by measurement of loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. Apoptotic signaling was measured by quantification of activated caspase-3 by using the Western blot technique.ResultsTreatment of endometrial and ovarian cancer cells with glycolysis inhibitor 2DG resulted in a significant decrease of cell viability and a significant increase of apoptosis. Treatment with 2DG in combination with the GnRH-II antagonist or with AEZS-108 resulted in a significant reduced viability compared with single-agent treatments. The observed reduction in viability was due to induction of apoptosis. Also for apoptosis induction, a significant stronger effect in the case of cotreatments compared with single-agent treatments could be observed. These additive effects could be correlated to increased activation of caspase-3.ConclusionsThe glycolytic phenotype of human endometrial and ovarian cancer cells can be targeted for therapeutic intervention. In addition, cotreatment of a glycolysis inhibitor with GnRH receptor-targeted therapies might be a suitable therapy for GnRH receptor-positive human endometrial and ovarian cancers.
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Limonta P, Montagnani Marelli M, Mai S, Motta M, Martini L, Moretti RM. GnRH receptors in cancer: from cell biology to novel targeted therapeutic strategies. Endocr Rev 2012; 33:784-811. [PMID: 22778172 DOI: 10.1210/er.2012-1014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The crucial role of pituitary GnRH receptors (GnRH-R) in the control of reproductive functions is well established. These receptors are the target of GnRH agonists (through receptor desensitization) and antagonists (through receptor blockade) for the treatment of steroid-dependent pathologies, including hormone-dependent tumors. It has also become increasingly clear that GnRH-R are expressed in cancer tissues, either related (i.e. prostate, breast, endometrial, and ovarian cancers) or unrelated (i.e. melanoma, glioblastoma, lung, and pancreatic cancers) to the reproductive system. In hormone-related tumors, GnRH-R appear to be expressed even when the tumor has escaped steroid dependence (such as castration-resistant prostate cancer). These receptors are coupled to a G(αi)-mediated intracellular signaling pathway. Activation of tumor GnRH-R by means of GnRH agonists elicits a strong antiproliferative, antimetastatic, and antiangiogenic (more recently demonstrated) activity. Interestingly, GnRH antagonists have also been shown to elicit a direct antitumor effect; thus, these compounds behave as antagonists of GnRH-R at the pituitary level and as agonists of the same receptors expressed in tumors. According to the ligand-induced selective-signaling theory, GnRH-R might assume various conformations, endowed with different activities for GnRH analogs and with different intracellular signaling pathways, according to the cell context. Based on these consistent experimental observations, tumor GnRH-R are now considered a very interesting candidate for novel molecular, GnRH analog-based, targeted strategies for the treatment of tumors expressing these receptors. These agents include GnRH agonists and antagonists, GnRH analog-based cytotoxic (i.e. doxorubicin) or nutraceutic (i.e. curcumin) hybrids, and GnRH-R-targeted nanoparticles delivering anticancer compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Limonta
- Section of Biomedicine and Endocrinology, Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy.
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Hanušová V, Boušová I, Skálová L. Possibilities to increase the effectiveness of doxorubicin in cancer cells killing. Drug Metab Rev 2011; 43:540-57. [DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2011.609174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Liu SV, Liu S, Pinski J. Luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone receptor targeted agents for prostate cancer. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2011; 20:769-78. [DOI: 10.1517/13543784.2011.574611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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Dose escalation and pharmacokinetic study of AEZS-108 (AN-152), an LHRH agonist linked to doxorubicin, in women with LHRH receptor-positive tumors. Gynecol Oncol 2010; 119:457-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ygyno.2010.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2010] [Revised: 08/02/2010] [Accepted: 08/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Piersma D, Themmen APN, Look MP, Klijn JGM, Foekens JA, Uitterlinden AG, Pols HAP, Berns EMJJ. GnRH and LHR gene variants predict adverse outcome in premenopausal breast cancer patients. Breast Cancer Res 2008; 9:R51. [PMID: 17692113 PMCID: PMC2206727 DOI: 10.1186/bcr1756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2007] [Revised: 07/30/2007] [Accepted: 08/10/2007] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Breast cancer development and progression are dependent on estrogen activity. In premenopausal women, estrogen production is mainly regulated through the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis. METHODS We have investigated the prognostic significance of two variants of genes involved in the HPG-axis, the GnRH (encoding gonadotropin-releasing hormone) 16Trp/Ser genotype and the LHR (encoding the luteinizing hormone receptor) insLQ variant, in retrospectively collected premenopausal breast cancer patients with a long follow-up (median follow-up of 11 years for living patients). RESULTS Carriership was not related with breast cancer risk (the case control study encompassed 278 premenopausal cases and 1,758 premenopausal controls). A significant adverse relationship of the LHR insLQ and GnRH 16Ser genotype with disease free survival (DFS) was observed in premenopausal (hormone receptor positive) breast cancer patients. In particular, those patients carrying both the GnRH 16Ser and LHR insLQ allele (approximately 25%) showed a significant increased risk of relapse, which was independent of traditional prognostic factors (hazard ratio 2.14; 95% confidence interval 1.32 to 3.45; P = 0.002). CONCLUSION We conclude that the LHR insLQ and GnRH 16Ser alleles are independently associated with shorter DFS in premenopausal patients. When validated, these findings may provide a lead in the development of tailored treatment for breast cancer patients carrying both polymorphisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Djura Piersma
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Axel PN Themmen
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maxime P Look
- Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan GM Klijn
- Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - John A Foekens
- Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - André G Uitterlinden
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Erasmus MC, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Huibert AP Pols
- Department of Internal Medicine, Erasmus MC, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Erasmus MC, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Els MJJ Berns
- Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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18
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Buchholz S, Keller G, Schally AV, Halmos G, Hohla F, Heinrich E, Koester F, Baker B, Engel JB. Therapy of ovarian cancers with targeted cytotoxic analogs of bombesin, somatostatin, and luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone and their combinations. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:10403-10407. [PMID: 16801542 PMCID: PMC1502470 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0602971103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of treatment of experimental ovarian cancers with targeted cytotoxic analogs as single compounds and in combination. Targeted cytotoxic analogs of bombesin (AN-215), somatostatin (AN-238), and luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (AN-207) consisted of 2-pyrrolinodoxorubicin (AN-201) linked to the respective peptide carrier. AN-238 at 200 nmol/kg significantly inhibited growth of UCI-107, ES-2 and OV-1063 ovarian cancers. AN-215 alone at 200 nmol/kg and its combination with AN-238 at one-half of the dose were also able to inhibit the growth of UCI-107 tumors. A combination of AN-238 with AN-207at 50% of the dose strongly suppressed the proliferation of ES-2 and OV-1063 ovarian tumors. Cytotoxic radical AN-201 was toxic and had no significant effect on tumor growth. In contrast, the toxicity of the conjugated peptide analogs was low. Because ovarian cancers tend to acquire chemoresistance, we used real-time PCR to measure the mRNA expression of multidrug resistance protein 1, multidrug resistance-related protein 1, and breast cancer resistance protein after treatment. Low or no induction of multidrug resistance protein 1, multidrug resistance-related protein, and breast cancer resistance protein occurred after treatment with AN-238, AN-215, and the combination of AN-238 with AN-207 or AN-215. These results demonstrate that a therapy with cytotoxic analogs such as single agents and combinations is effective and nontoxic. Our work suggests that cytotoxic peptide analogs of luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone, somatostatin, and bombesin could be used for the therapy of ovarian cancers, considering the lack of induction of chemoresistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Buchholz
- *Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112
- Klinik und Poliklinik für Frauenheilkunde und Geburtshilfe, Universität Regensburg, Landshuterstraße 65, 93051 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Gunhild Keller
- *Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112
- Universitätsklinik für Haut- und Geschlechtskranheiten, Josef-Schneider-Strasse 2, 97080 Würzburg, Germany; and
| | - Andrew V Schally
- *Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112;
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center and South Florida Veterans Affairs Foundation for Research and Education, 1201 Northwest 16th Street, Miami, FL 33125
| | - Gabor Halmos
- *Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112
| | - Florian Hohla
- *Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112
| | - Elmar Heinrich
- *Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112
| | - Frank Koester
- *Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112
| | - Benjamin Baker
- *Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112
| | - Jörg B Engel
- *Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Department of Medicine, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA 70112
- Universitätsfrauenklinik Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Strasse 4, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
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19
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von Alten J, Fister S, Schulz H, Viereck V, Frosch KH, Emons G, Gründker C. GnRH analogs reduce invasiveness of human breast cancer cells. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2006; 100:13-21. [PMID: 16758121 DOI: 10.1007/s10549-006-9222-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2005] [Accepted: 03/11/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Bone, besides lung and liver, is one of the most preferential metastatic target sites for breast cancers. Although the precise molecular mechanisms underlying this preference need to be elucidated, it appears that bone microenvironments possess unique biological features that enable circulating cancer cells to home, survive and proliferate, and destroy bone. The majority of human breast cancers and in addition most breast cancer cell lines express GnRH receptors. Their proliferation is time- and dose-dependently reduced by GnRH-I and GnRH-II agonists by counteracting of the mitogenic signal transduction. METHODS We have established a coculture system of different breast cancer cell lines stable transfected with red fluorescence (DS-Red) and human primary osteoblasts (hOB) or MG63 human osteosarcoma cells to analyze tumor cell invasion to bone. RESULTS We could show that breast cancer cell invasion was increased when cocultured with hOB or MG63. Treatment with GnRH-I and GnRH-II analogs reduced the ability to invade a reconstituted basement membrane (Matrigel) and to migrate in response to the cellular stimulus. Searching for the molecular mechanisms we found that GnRH treatment reduces expression of the osteoblast derived chemokine SDF-1 by hOB or MG63 cells cocultured with breast cancer cells. CONCLUSION These data represent the first report that the activation of tumor GnRH receptors reduces the metastatic potential of breast cancer cells. The crosstalk between metastatic breast cancer cells and bone is critical to the development and progression of bone metastases. Disruption of this interaction will allow us to design mechanism-based effective and specific therapeutic interventions for bone metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia von Alten
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Georg-August-University, Robert-Koch-Street 40, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany
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20
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Engel JB, Schally AV, Halmos G, Baker B, Nagy A, Keller G. Experimental therapy of human endometrial cancers with a targeted cytotoxic bombesin analog AN-215: Low induction of multidrug resistance proteins. Eur J Cancer 2005; 41:1824-30. [PMID: 16051478 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2005.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2005] [Revised: 04/04/2005] [Accepted: 04/08/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In this study we have investigated the efficacy and toxicity of targeted cytotoxic bombesin (BN) analog AN-215 and its effects on the expression of three multidrug resistance proteins in experimental human endometrial cancers. Nude mice bearing HEC-1A, RL-95-2 and AN3CA tumours were treated with AN-215 and its cytotoxic radical (AN-201). The BN receptor expression in tumours was followed by RT-PCR analysis and radioligand binding assays. Expression of drug resistance proteins MDR-1, MRP-1 and BCRP were measured by realtime PCR. AN-215 significantly (P<0.05) inhibited the growth of HEC-1A, RL-95-2 and AN3CA tumours while AN-201 was ineffective. The expression of BN receptors was demonstrated in all three tumour models. AN-215 caused a lower induction of MDR-1 in HEC-1A and RL-95-2 cancers than AN-201. MRP-1 and BCRP were not induced by AN-215 or AN-201. Thus, targeted chemotherapy with AN-215 powerfully inhibits the growth of human BN receptor-positive endometrial cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jörg B Engel
- Endocrine, Polypeptide and Cancer Institute, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 1601 Perdido Street, New Orleans, LA 70112-1262, USA
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