Efficient Synthesis of Ethyl Levulinate Fuel Additives from Levulinic Acid Catalyzed by Sulfonated Pine Needle-Derived Carbon

Prepared Sulfonic-Acid-Based Ionic Liquid for Catalytic Conversion of Furfuryl Alcohol to Ethyl Levulinate

Efficient utilization of Brønsted acids has been advanced through the synthesis of a novel pyridinium propyl sulfonic acid ionic liquid catalyst, [PSna][HSO4]. Employing niacin and 1,3-propanesulfonic lactone, the synthesis aimed to achieve a catalyst that combines atom-efficiency with stability. Optimal catalytic activity was demonstrated at a temperature of 110 °C over a 2 h reaction time, resulting in a furfuryl alcohol conversion and ethyl levulinate yield of 97.79% and 96.10%, respectively. Notably, the extraction and recovery of [PSna][HSO4] exhibited commendable repeatability with up to five cycles, maintaining furfuryl alcohol conversion and ethyl levulinate yield at 93.74% and 88.17%, which highlights the catalyst's durability. Density flooding theory (DFT) calculations were employed to determine the most probable reaction pathways and identify all possible transition states and the reaction energy barriers overcome at each step of the reaction.

A review on solid acid catalysis for sustainable production of levulinic acid and levulinate esters from biomass derivatives

Biomass is a kind of renewable and abundant resource that can be seen as an important candidate to solve the energy crisis. Levulinic acid (LA) and levulinate esters (LEs) have been widely researched as biomass-based platform compounds. In recent years, efficient, green, and environment-friendly solid acid catalysts have been developed for the fast production and resolution of the problems, such as low yield, high equipmental requirements, and difficulty in product separation, in the preparation of LA and LE from biomass. In this paper, the preparation routes of LA and LEs from various raw materials are introduced, and the solid acid catalysts involved in their production are emphatically reviewed. The challenges and prospects in LA and LE production from biomass are proposed to achieve a more economical and energy efficient process with the concept of sustainable development in the future.

Bio-Derived Catalysts: A Current Trend of Catalysts Used in Biodiesel Production

Biodiesel is a promising alternative to fossil fuels and mainly produced from oils/fat through the (trans)esterification process. To enhance the reaction efficiency and simplify the production process, various catalysts have been introduced for biodiesel synthesis. Recently, the use of bio-derived catalysts has attracted more interest due to their high catalytic activity and ecofriendly properties. These catalysts include alkali catalysts, acid catalysts, and enzymes (biocatalysts), which are (bio)synthesized from various natural sources. This review summarizes the latest findings on these bio-derived catalysts, as well as their source and catalytic activity. The advantages and disadvantages of these catalysts are also discussed. These bio-based catalysts show a promising future and can be further used as a renewable catalyst for sustainable biodiesel production.