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Radwan MO, Abd-Alla HI, Alsaggaf AT, El-Mezayen H, Abourehab MAS, El-Beeh ME, Tateishi H, Otsuka M, Fujita M. Gypsogenin Battling for a Front Position in the Pentacyclic Triterpenes Game of Thrones on Anti-Cancer Therapy: A Critical Review-Dedicated to the Memory of Professor Hanaa M. Rady. Molecules 2023; 28:5677. [PMID: 37570648 PMCID: PMC10420691 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28155677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
In the last decade, gypsogenin has attracted widespread attention from medicinal chemists by virtue of its prominent anti-cancer potential. Despite its late identification, gypsogenin has proved itself as a new anti-proliferative player battling for a frontline position among other classic pentacyclic triterpenes such as oleanolic acid, glycyrrhetinic acid, ursolic acid, betulinic acid, and celastrol. Herein, we present the most important reactions of gypsogenin via modification of its four functional groups. Furthermore, we demonstrate insights into the anti-cancer activity of gypsogenin and its semisynthetic derivatives and go further by introducing our perspective to judiciously guide the prospective rational design. The present article opens a new venue for a better exploitation of gypsogenin chemical entity as a lead compound in cancer chemotherapy. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first review article exploring the anti-cancer activity of gypsogenin derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed O. Radwan
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 862-0973, Japan
- Chemistry of Natural Compounds Department, National Research Centre, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Howaida I. Abd-Alla
- Chemistry of Natural Compounds Department, National Research Centre, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Azhaar T. Alsaggaf
- Department of Chemistry, Taibah University, Madinah 42353, Saudi Arabia;
| | | | - Mohammed A. S. Abourehab
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Minia University, Minia 61519, Egypt
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohamed E. El-Beeh
- Biology Department, Al-Jumum University College, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hiroshi Tateishi
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 862-0973, Japan
| | - Masami Otsuka
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 862-0973, Japan
- Department of Drug Discovery, Science Farm Ltd., Kumamoto 862-0976, Japan
| | - Mikako Fujita
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 862-0973, Japan
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Studies on 1,4-Quinone Derivatives Exhibiting Anti-Leukemic Activity along with Anti-Colorectal and Anti-Breast Cancer Effects. Molecules 2022; 28:molecules28010077. [PMID: 36615273 PMCID: PMC9822417 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28010077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2022] [Revised: 12/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC), breast cancer, and chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) are life-threatening malignancies worldwide. Although potent therapeutic and screening strategies have been developed so far, these cancer types are still major public health problems. Therefore, the exploration of more potent and selective new agents is urgently required for the treatment of these cancers. Quinones represent one of the most important structures in anticancer drug discovery. We have previously identified a series of quinone-based compounds (ABQ-1-17) as anti-CML agents. In the current work, ABQ-3 was taken to the National Cancer Institute (NCI) for screening to determine its in vitro antiproliferative effects against a large panel of human tumor cell lines at five doses. ABQ-3 revealed significant growth inhibition against HCT-116 CRC and MCF-7 breast cancer cells with 2.00 µM and 2.35 µM GI50 values, respectively. The MTT test also showed that ABQ-3 possessed anticancer effects towards HCT-116 and MCF-7 cells with IC50 values of 5.22 ± 2.41 μM and 7.46 ± 2.76 μM, respectively. Further experiments indicated that ABQ-3 induced apoptosis in both cell lines, and molecular docking studies explicitly suggested that ABQ-3 exhibited DNA binding in a similar fashion to previously reported compounds. Based on in silico pharmacokinetic prediction, ABQ-3 might display drug-like features enabling this compound to become a lead molecule for future studies.
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Stanojkovic TP, Filimonova M, Grozdanic N, Petovic S, Shitova A, Soldatova O, Filimonov A, Vladic J, Shegay P, Kaprin A, Ivanov S, Nikitovic M. Evaluation of In Vitro Cytotoxic Potential of Avarol towards Human Cancer Cell Lines and In Vivo Antitumor Activity in Solid Tumor Models. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27249048. [PMID: 36558184 PMCID: PMC9788264 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27249048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 12/04/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The goal of this study was to determine the activity in vitro and in vivo of avarol, a sesquiterpene hydroquinone originating from the Dysidea avara sponge from the south Adriatic Sea, against different cancer cell lines and two types of mouse carcinoma. To investigate the in vitro cytotoxicity, a human cervix adenocarcinoma cell line (HeLa), human colon adenocarcinoma (LS174), human non-small-cell lung carcinoma (A549), and a normal human fetal lung fibroblast cell line (MRC-5) were used. The in vivo antitumor activity was investigated against two transplantable mouse tumors, the Ehrlich carcinoma (EC) and cervical cancer (CC-5). The effect of avarol on cancer cell survival, which was determined by the microculture tetrazolium test, confirmed a significant in vitro potency of avarol against the investigated cell lines, without selectivity towards MRC-5. The highest cytotoxicity was exhibited against HeLa cancer cells (10.22 ± 0.28 μg/mL). Moreover, potent antitumor activity against two tumor models was determined, as the intraperitoneal administration of avarol at a dose of 50 mg/kg resulted in a significant inhibition of tumor growth in mice. After three administrations of avarol, a 29% inhibition of the EC growth was achieved, while in the case of CC-5, a 36% inhibition of the tumor growth was achieved after the second administration of avarol. Therefore, the results indicate that this marine sesquiterpenoid hydroquinone could be a promising bioactive compound in the development of new anticancer medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatjana P. Stanojkovic
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology and Radiology of Serbia, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Marina Filimonova
- A. Tsyb Medical Radiological Research Center, Federal State Budget Institution National Medical Research Radiological Center of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Russian Federation, 249031 Obninsk, Russia
- Correspondence:
| | - Nadja Grozdanic
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology and Radiology of Serbia, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Slavica Petovic
- Institute of Marine Biology, University of Montenegro, 85330 Kotor, Montenegro
| | - Anna Shitova
- A. Tsyb Medical Radiological Research Center, Federal State Budget Institution National Medical Research Radiological Center of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Russian Federation, 249031 Obninsk, Russia
| | - Olga Soldatova
- A. Tsyb Medical Radiological Research Center, Federal State Budget Institution National Medical Research Radiological Center of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Russian Federation, 249031 Obninsk, Russia
| | - Alexander Filimonov
- A. Tsyb Medical Radiological Research Center, Federal State Budget Institution National Medical Research Radiological Center of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Russian Federation, 249031 Obninsk, Russia
| | - Jelena Vladic
- Faculty of Technology, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Petr Shegay
- National Medical Research Radiological Center of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, 249030 Obninsk, Russia
| | - Andrey Kaprin
- National Medical Research Radiological Center of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, 249030 Obninsk, Russia
- Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, Medical Institute (RUDN University), 117198 Moscow, Russia
| | - Sergey Ivanov
- A. Tsyb Medical Radiological Research Center, Federal State Budget Institution National Medical Research Radiological Center of the Ministry of Healthcare of the Russian Federation, 249031 Obninsk, Russia
| | - Marina Nikitovic
- Department of Experimental Oncology, Institute of Oncology and Radiology of Serbia, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
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Shiau JP, Lee MY, Tang JY, Huang H, Lin ZY, Su JH, Hou MF, Cheng YB, Chang HW. Marine Sponge Aaptos suberitoides Extract Improves Antiproliferation and Apoptosis of Breast Cancer Cells without Cytotoxicity to Normal Cells In Vitro. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15121575. [PMID: 36559026 PMCID: PMC9783771 DOI: 10.3390/ph15121575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The anticancer effects and mechanisms of marine sponge Aaptos suberitoides were rarely assessed, especially for methanol extract of A. suberitoides (MEAS) to breast cancer cells. This study evaluated the differential suppression effects of proliferation by MEAS between breast cancer and normal cells. MEAS demonstrated more antiproliferation impact on breast cancer cells than normal cells, indicating oxidative stress-dependent preferential antiproliferation effects on breast cancer cells but not for normal cells. Several oxidative stress-associated responses were highly induced by MEAS in breast cancer cells but not normal cells, including the generations of cellular and mitochondrial oxidative stress as well as the depletion of mitochondrial membrane potential. MEAS downregulated cellular antioxidants such as glutathione, partly contributing to the upregulation of oxidative stress in breast cancer cells. This preferential oxidative stress generation is accompanied by more DNA damage (γH2AX and 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine) in breast cancer cells than in normal cells. N-acetylcysteine reverted these MEAS-triggered responses. In conclusion, MEAS is a potential natural product for treating breast cancer cells with the characteristics of preferential antiproliferation function without cytotoxicity to normal cells in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun-Ping Shiau
- Division of Breast Oncology and Surgery, Department of Surgery, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
| | - Min-Yu Lee
- Graduate Institute of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
| | - Jen-Yang Tang
- School of Post-Baccalaureate Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaoshiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
| | - Hsin Huang
- Department of Marine Biotechnology and Resources, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan
| | - Zheng-Yu Lin
- Department of Marine Biotechnology and Resources, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan
| | - Jui-Hsin Su
- Department of Marine Biotechnology and Resources, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Feng Hou
- Division of Breast Oncology and Surgery, Department of Surgery, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, College of Life Science, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
| | - Yuan-Bin Cheng
- Department of Marine Biotechnology and Resources, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (Y.-B.C.); (H.-W.C.); Tel.: +886-07-525-2000 (ext. 5212) (Y.-B.C.); +886-7-312-1101 (ext. 2691) (H.-W.C.)
| | - Hsueh-Wei Chang
- Department of Biomedical Science and Environmental Biology, College of Life Science, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
- Center for Cancer Research, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan
- Correspondence: (Y.-B.C.); (H.-W.C.); Tel.: +886-07-525-2000 (ext. 5212) (Y.-B.C.); +886-7-312-1101 (ext. 2691) (H.-W.C.)
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In Vitro Cytotoxicity Evaluation of Plastoquinone Analogues against Colorectal and Breast Cancers along with In Silico Insights. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15101266. [PMID: 36297378 PMCID: PMC9609592 DOI: 10.3390/ph15101266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 09/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) and breast cancer are leading causes of death globally, due to significant challenges in detection and management. The late-stage diagnosis and treatment failures require the discovery of potential anticancer agents to achieve a satisfactory therapeutic effect. We have previously reported a series of plastoquinone analogues to understand their cytotoxic profile. Among these derivatives, three of them (AQ-11, AQ-12, and AQ-15) were selected by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) to evaluate their in vitro antiproliferative activity against a panel of 60 human tumor cell lines. AQ-12 exhibited significant antiproliferative activity against HCT-116 CRC and MCF-7 breast cancer cells at a single dose and further five doses. MTT assay was also performed for AQ-12 at different concentrations against these two cells, implying that AQ-12 exerted notable cytotoxicity toward HCT-116 (IC50 = 5.11 ± 2.14 μM) and MCF-7 (IC50 = 6.06 ± 3.09 μM) cells in comparison with cisplatin (IC50 = 23.68 ± 6.81 μM and 19.67 ± 5.94 μM, respectively). This compound also augmented apoptosis in HCT-116 (62.30%) and MCF-7 (64.60%) cells comparable to cisplatin (67.30% and 78.80%, respectively). Molecular docking studies showed that AQ-12 bound to DNA, forming hydrogen bonding through the quinone scaffold. In silico pharmacokinetic determinants indicated that AQ-12 demonstrated drug-likeness with a remarkable pharmacokinetic profile for future mechanistic anti-CRC and anti-breast cancer activity studies.
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Evaluation of anti-glioma effects of benzothiazoles as efficient apoptosis inducers and DNA cleaving agents. Mol Cell Biochem 2022; 478:1099-1108. [PMID: 36219355 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-022-04580-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Glioma is the fast-growing, aggressive, and prevalent brain cancer with a great level of morbidity and mortality. Current therapy is usually found insufficient for glioma treatment. In the course of our research attempting to identify effective anti-glioma agents, three benzothiazole derivatives (1-3) were examined on U251 glioma cells. Among these derivatives, compound 3 was found to have the strongest cytotoxic effect on glioma cells with an IC50 value of 9.84 ± 0.64 μM in reference to cisplatin (IC50 = 8.41 ± 1.27 μM). Further mechanism of anti-glioma effects of compound 3 was characterized by the determination of its apoptotic effects in glioma cells and DNA cleaving capacity. Compound 3 caused a significant apoptotic death of U251 cell line. Besides, this compound cleaved DNA with FeSO4, H2O2 and ascorbic acid system. Molecular docking results also showed that compound 3 possessed a significant binding potential to DNA via important π-π stacking interaction with DG-16. Some pharmacokinetic determinants of compound 3 complied with standard limits making it as an efficient bioavailable anti-glioma drug candidate for upcoming exploration.
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Ilimaquinone (Marine Sponge Metabolite) Induces Apoptosis in HCT-116 Human Colorectal Carcinoma Cells via Mitochondrial-Mediated Apoptosis Pathway. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20090582. [PMID: 36135771 PMCID: PMC9503335 DOI: 10.3390/md20090582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Ilimaquinone (IQ), a metabolite found in marine sponges, has been reported to have a number of biological properties, including potential anticancer activity against colon cancer. However, no clear understanding of the precise mechanism involved is known. The aim of this study was to examine the molecular mechanism by which IQ acts on HCT-116 cells. The anticancer activity of IQ was investigated by means of a cell viability assay followed by the determination of induction of apoptosis by means of the use of acridine orange–ethidium bromide (AO/EB) staining, Annexin V/PI double staining, DNA fragmentation assays, and TUNEL assays. The mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) was detected using the JC-1 staining technique, and the apoptosis-associated proteins were analyzed using real-time qRT-PCR. A molecular docking study of IQ with apoptosis-associated proteins was also conducted in order to assess the interaction between IQ and them. Our results suggest that IQ significantly suppressed the viability of HCT-116 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Fluorescent microscopy, flow cytometry, DNA fragmentation and the TUNEL assay in treated cells demonstrated apoptotic death mode. As an additional confirmation of apoptosis, the increased level of caspase-3 and caspase-9 expression and the downregulation of Bcl-2 and mitochondrial dysfunction were observed in HCT-116 cells after treatment with IQ, which was accompanied by a decrease in mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm). Overall, the results of our studies demonstrate that IQ could trigger mitochondria-mediated apoptosis as demonstrated by a decrease in ΔΨm, activation of caspase-9/-3, damage of DNA and a decrease in the proportion of Bcl-2 through the mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis pathway.
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In Vitro and In Silico Study of Analogs of Plant Product Plastoquinone to Be Effective in Colorectal Cancer Treatment. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27030693. [PMID: 35163957 PMCID: PMC8839215 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27030693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Plants have paved the way for the attainment of molecules with a wide-range of biological activities. However, plant products occasionally show low biological activities and/or poor pharmacokinetic properties. In that case, development of their derivatives as drugs from the plant world has been actively performed. As plant products, plastoquinones (PQs) have been of high importance in anticancer drug design and discovery; we have previously evaluated and reported the potential cytotoxic effects of a series of PQ analogs. Among these analogs, PQ2, PQ3 and PQ10 were selected for National Cancer Institute (NCI) for in vitro screening of anticancer activity against a wide range of cancer cell lines. The apparent superior anticancer potency of PQ2 on the HCT-116 colorectal cancer cell line than that of PQ3 and PQ10 compared to other tested cell lines has encouraged us to perform further mechanistic studies to enlighten the mode of anti-colorectal cancer action of PQ2. For this purpose, its apoptotic effects on the HCT-116 cell line, DNA binding capacity and several crucial pharmacokinetic properties were investigated. Initially, MTT assay was conducted for PQ2 at different concentrations against HCT-116 cells. Results indicated that PQ2 exhibited significant cytotoxicity in HCT-116 cells with an IC50 value of 4.97 ± 1.93 μM compared to cisplatin (IC50 = 26.65 ± 7.85 μM). Moreover, apoptotic effects of PQ2 on HCT-116 cells were investigated by the annexin V/ethidium homodimer III staining method and PQ2 significantly induced apoptosis in HCT-116 cells compared to cisplatin. Based on the potent DNA cleavage capacity of PQ2, molecular docking studies were conducted in the minor groove of the double helix of DNA and PQ2 presented a key hydrogen bonding through its methoxy moiety. Overall, both in vitro and in silico studies indicated that effective, orally bioavailable drug-like PQ2 attracted attention for colorectal cancer treatment. The most important point to emerge from this study is that appropriate derivatization of a plant product leads to unique biologically active compounds.
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Özdemir A, Ciftci H, Sever B, Tateishi H, Otsuka M, Fujita M, Altıntop MD. A New Series of Indeno[1,2- c]pyrazoles as EGFR TK Inhibitors for NSCLC Therapy. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27020485. [PMID: 35056800 PMCID: PMC8778314 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27020485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Revised: 12/31/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is the leading cause of cancer-related death throughout the world. Due to the shortcomings of traditional chemotherapy, targeted therapies have come into prominence for the management of NSCLC. In particular, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) therapy has emerged as a first-line therapy for NSCLC patients with EGFR-activating mutations. In this context, new indenopyrazoles, which were prepared by an efficient microwave-assisted method, were subjected to in silico and in vitro assays to evaluate their potency as EGFR TK-targeted anti-NSCLC agents. Compound 4 was the most promising antitumor agent towards A549 human lung adenocarcinoma cells, with an IC50 value of 6.13 µM compared to erlotinib (IC50 = 19.67 µM). Based on its low cytotoxicity to peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), it can be concluded that compound 4 exerts selective antitumor action. This compound also inhibited EGFR TK with an IC50 value of 17.58 µM compared to erlotinib (IC50 = 0.04 µM) and induced apoptosis (56.30%). Taking into account in silico and in vitro data, compound 4 stands out as a potential EGFR TKI for the treatment of NSCLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmet Özdemir
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Eskisehir 26470, Turkey;
- Correspondence: (A.Ö.); (M.F.); (M.D.A.); Tel.: +90-222-335-0580 (ext. 3780) (A.Ö.); +81-96-371-4622 (M.F.); +90-222-335-0580 (ext. 3807) (M.D.A.)
| | - Halilibrahim Ciftci
- Department of Drug Discovery, Science Farm Ltd., Kumamoto 862-0976, Japan; (H.C.); (M.O.)
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 862-0973, Japan;
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Koc University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey
| | - Belgin Sever
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Eskisehir 26470, Turkey;
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 862-0973, Japan;
| | - Hiroshi Tateishi
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 862-0973, Japan;
| | - Masami Otsuka
- Department of Drug Discovery, Science Farm Ltd., Kumamoto 862-0976, Japan; (H.C.); (M.O.)
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 862-0973, Japan;
| | - Mikako Fujita
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, Faculty of Life Sciences, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 862-0973, Japan;
- Correspondence: (A.Ö.); (M.F.); (M.D.A.); Tel.: +90-222-335-0580 (ext. 3780) (A.Ö.); +81-96-371-4622 (M.F.); +90-222-335-0580 (ext. 3807) (M.D.A.)
| | - Mehlika Dilek Altıntop
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Eskisehir 26470, Turkey;
- Correspondence: (A.Ö.); (M.F.); (M.D.A.); Tel.: +90-222-335-0580 (ext. 3780) (A.Ö.); +81-96-371-4622 (M.F.); +90-222-335-0580 (ext. 3807) (M.D.A.)
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Di Cesare Mannelli L, Palma Esposito F, Sangiovanni E, Pagano E, Mannucci C, Polini B, Ghelardini C, Dell’Agli M, Izzo AA, Calapai G, de Pascale D, Nieri P. Pharmacological Activities of Extracts and Compounds Isolated from Mediterranean Sponge Sources. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14121329. [PMID: 34959729 PMCID: PMC8715745 DOI: 10.3390/ph14121329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Revised: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Marine pharmacology is an exciting and growing discipline that blends blue biotechnology and natural compound pharmacology together. Several sea-derived compounds that are approved on the pharmaceutical market were discovered in sponges, marine organisms that are particularly rich in bioactive metabolites. This paper was specifically aimed at reviewing the pharmacological activities of extracts or purified compounds from marine sponges that were collected in the Mediterranean Sea, one of the most biodiverse marine habitats, filling the gap in the literature about the research of natural products from this geographical area. Findings regarding different Mediterranean sponge species were individuated, reporting consistent evidence of efficacy mainly against cancer, infections, inflammatory, and neurological disorders. The sustainable exploitation of Mediterranean sponges as pharmaceutical sources is strongly encouraged to discover new compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Di Cesare Mannelli
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health—Neurofarba—Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Florence, 50139 Florence, Italy;
- Correspondence:
| | - Fortunato Palma Esposito
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, 80121 Naples, Italy; (F.P.E.); (D.d.P.)
| | - Enrico Sangiovanni
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (E.S.); (M.D.)
| | - Ester Pagano
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Italy; (E.P.); (A.A.I.)
| | - Carmen Mannucci
- Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphological and Functional Imaging, University of Messina, 98125 Messina, Italy; (C.M.); (G.C.)
| | - Beatrice Polini
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy; (B.P.); (P.N.)
| | - Carla Ghelardini
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug Research and Child Health—Neurofarba—Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Florence, 50139 Florence, Italy;
| | - Mario Dell’Agli
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy; (E.S.); (M.D.)
| | - Angelo Antonio Izzo
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Italy; (E.P.); (A.A.I.)
| | - Gioacchino Calapai
- Department of Biomedical and Dental Sciences and Morphological and Functional Imaging, University of Messina, 98125 Messina, Italy; (C.M.); (G.C.)
| | - Donatella de Pascale
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, 80121 Naples, Italy; (F.P.E.); (D.d.P.)
| | - Paola Nieri
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy; (B.P.); (P.N.)
- Interdepartmental Center of Marine Pharmacology (MarinePHARMA), University of Pisa, 56126 Pisa, Italy
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EGFR-Targeted Pentacyclic Triterpene Analogues for Glioma Therapy. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222010945. [PMID: 34681605 PMCID: PMC8537327 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222010945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Glioma, particularly its most malignant form, glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), is the most common and aggressive malignant central nervous system tumor. The drawbacks of the current chemotherapy for GBM have aroused curiosity in the search for targeted therapies. Aberrantly overexpressed epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in GBM results in poor prognosis, low survival rates, poor responses to therapy and recurrence, and therefore EGFR-targeted therapy stands out as a promising approach for the treatment of gliomas. In this context, a series of pentacyclic triterpene analogues were subjected to in vitro and in silico assays, which were conducted to assess their potency as EGFR-targeted anti-glioma agents. In particular, compound 10 was the most potent anti-glioma agent with an IC50 value of 5.82 µM towards U251 human glioblastoma cells. Taking into account its low cytotoxicity to peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), compound 10 exerts selective antitumor action towards Jurkat human leukemic T-cells. This compound also induced apoptosis and inhibited EGFR with an IC50 value of 9.43 µM compared to erlotinib (IC50 = 0.06 µM). Based on in vitro and in silico data, compound 10 stands out as a potential orally bioavailable EGFR-targeted anti-glioma agent endowed with the ability to cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB).
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Secondary Metabolites from Marine Sources with Potential Use as Leads for Anticancer Applications. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26144292. [PMID: 34299567 PMCID: PMC8305022 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26144292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of novel anticancer agents is essential to finding new ways to treat this disease, one of the deadliest diseases. Some marine organisms have proved to be important producers of chemically active compounds with valuable bioactive properties, including anticancer. Thus, the ocean has proved to be a huge source of bioactive compounds, making the discovery and study of these compounds a growing area. In the last few years, several compounds of marine origin, which include algae, corals, and sea urchins, have been isolated, studied, and demonstrated to possess anticancer properties. These compounds, mainly from securamines and sterols families, have been tested for cytotoxic/antiproliferative activity in different cell lines. Bioactive compounds isolated from marine organisms in the past 5 years that have shown anticancer activity, emphasizing the ones that showed the highest cytotoxic activity, such as securamines H and I, cholest-3β,5α,6β-triol, (E)-24-methylcholest-22-ene-3β,5α,6β-triol, 24-methylenecholesta-3β,5α,6β-triol, and 24-methylcholesta-3β,5α,6β-triol, will be discussed in this review. These studies reveal the possibility of new compounds of marine origin being used as new therapeutic agents or as a source of inspiration to develop new therapeutic agents.
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Ciftci HI, Bayrak N, Yıldız M, Yıldırım H, Sever B, Tateishi H, Otsuka M, Fujita M, Tuyun AF. Design, synthesis and investigation of the mechanism of action underlying anti-leukemic effects of the quinolinequinones as LY83583 analogs. Bioorg Chem 2021; 114:105160. [PMID: 34328861 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2021.105160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Literature conclusively shows that one of the quinolinequinone analogs (6-anilino-5,8-quinolinequinone), referred to as LY83583 hereafter, an inhibitor of guanylyl cyclase, was used as the inhibitor of the cell proliferation in cancer cells. In the present work, a series of analogs of the LY83583 containing alkoxy group(s) in aminophenyl ring (AQQ1-15) were designed and synthesized via a two-step route and evaluated for their in vitro cytotoxic activity against four different cancer cell lines (K562, Jurkat, MT-2, and HeLa) and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) by MTT assay. The analog (AQQ13) was identified to possess the most potent cytotoxic activity against K562 human chronic myelogenous (CML) cell line (IC50 = 0.59 ± 0.07 μM) with significant selectivity (SI = 4.51) compared to imatinib (IC50 = 5.46 ± 0.85 μM; SI = 4.60). Based on its superior cytotoxic activity, the analog AQQ13 was selected for further mechanistic studies including determination of its apoptotic effects on K562 cell line via annexin V/ethidium homodimer III staining potency, ABL1 kinase inhibitory activity, and DNA cleaving capacity. Results ascertained that the analog AQQ13 induced apoptosis in K562 cell line with notable DNA-cleaving activity. However, AQQ13 demonstrated weak ABL1 inhibition indicating the correlation between anti-K562 and anti-ABL1 activities. In continuance, respectively conducted in silico molecular docking and Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion (ADME) studies drew attention to enhanced binding interactions of AQQ13 towards DNA and its high compatibility with the potential limits of specified pharmacokinetic parameters making it as a potential anti-leukemic drug candidate. Our findings may provide a new insight for further development of novel quinolinequinone-based anticancer analogs against CML.
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Affiliation(s)
- Halil I Ciftci
- Department of Drug Discovery, Science Farm Ltd., Kumamoto, Japan; Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, School of Pharmacy, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Nilüfer Bayrak
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Mahmut Yıldız
- Chemistry Department, Gebze Technical University, Gebze, Kocaeli, Turkey
| | - Hatice Yıldırım
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Belgin Sever
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, School of Pharmacy, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan; Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey
| | - Hiroshi Tateishi
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, School of Pharmacy, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Masami Otsuka
- Department of Drug Discovery, Science Farm Ltd., Kumamoto, Japan; Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, School of Pharmacy, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Mikako Fujita
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, School of Pharmacy, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan.
| | - Amaç Fatih Tuyun
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Istanbul University, Fatih, Istanbul, Turkey.
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Bayrak N, Ciftci HI, Yıldız M, Yıldırım H, Sever B, Tateishi H, Otsuka M, Fujita M, Tuyun AF. Structure based design, synthesis, and evaluation of anti-CML activity of the quinolinequinones as LY83583 analogs. Chem Biol Interact 2021; 345:109555. [PMID: 34146539 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2021.109555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 05/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Quinone-based small molecules are the promising structures for antiproliferative drug design and can induce apoptosis in cancer cells. Among them, one of the quinolinequinones, named as 6-anilino-5,8-quinolinequinone, LY83583 has the ability to inhibit the growth of cancer cells as an inhibitor of cyclase. The biological potential of all synthesized compounds as the analogs of the identified lead molecule LY83583 that possessed the antiproliferative efficiency was determined. The two series of the LY83583 analogs containing electron-withdrawing or electron-donating group(s) were synthesized and subsequently in vitro evaluated for their cytotoxic activity against K562, Jurkat, MT-2, and HeLa cell lines using MTT assay. All the LY83583 analogs showed antiproliferative activity with good IC50 values (less than positive control imatinib). Four analogs from each series were also selected for the determination of selectivity against human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The analog AQQ15 showed high potency towards all cancer cell lines with almost similar selectivity of imatinib. In order to get a better insight into cytotoxic effects of the analog AQQ15 in K562 cells, further apoptotic effects due to annexin V/ethidium homodimer III staining, ABL1 kinase inhibition, and DNA cleaving ability were examined. The analog AQQ15 induced apoptotic cell death in K562 cells with 34.6% compared to imatinib (6.5%). This analog showed no considerable ABL1 kinase inhibitory activity but significant DNA cleavage activity indicating DNA fragmentation-induced apoptosis. Besides, molecular docking studies revealed that the analog AQQ15 established proper interactions with the deoxyribose sugar attached with the nucleobases adenine and guanidine respectively, in the minor groove of the double helix of DNA. In silico predicted pharmacokinetic parameters of this analog were found to comply with the standard range making it an efficient anticancer drug candidate for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nilüfer Bayrak
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Halil I Ciftci
- Department of Drug Discovery, Science Farm Ltd., Kumamoto, Japan; Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, School of Pharmacy, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Mahmut Yıldız
- Chemistry Department, Gebze Technical University, Gebze, Kocaeli, Turkey
| | - Hatice Yıldırım
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering, Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Avcilar, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Belgin Sever
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, School of Pharmacy, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan; Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey
| | - Hiroshi Tateishi
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, School of Pharmacy, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Masami Otsuka
- Department of Drug Discovery, Science Farm Ltd., Kumamoto, Japan; Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, School of Pharmacy, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Mikako Fujita
- Medicinal and Biological Chemistry Science Farm Joint Research Laboratory, School of Pharmacy, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan.
| | - Amaç Fatih Tuyun
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Istanbul University, Fatih, Istanbul, Turkey.
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Parate S, Kumar V, Lee G, Rampogu S, Hong JC, Lee KW. Marine-Derived Natural Products as ATP-Competitive mTOR Kinase Inhibitors for Cancer Therapeutics. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:ph14030282. [PMID: 33801030 PMCID: PMC8003863 DOI: 10.3390/ph14030282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is a serine/threonine kinase portraying a quintessential role in cellular proliferation and survival. Aberrations in the mTOR signaling pathway have been reported in numerous cancers including thyroid, lung, gastric and ovarian cancer, thus making it a therapeutic target. To attain this objective, an in silico investigation was designed, employing a pharmacophore modeling approach. A structure-based pharmacophore (SBP) model exploiting the key features of a selective mTOR inhibitor, Torkinib directed at the ATP-binding pocket was generated. A Marine Natural Products (MNP) library was screened using SBP model as a query. The retrieved compounds after consequent drug-likeness filtration were subjected to molecular docking with mTOR, thus revealing four MNPs with better scores than Torkinib. Successive refinement via molecular dynamics simulations demonstrated that the hits formed crucial interactions with key residues of the pocket. Furthermore, the four identified hits exhibited good binding free energy scores through MM-PBSA calculations and the subsequent in silico toxicity assessments displayed three hits deemed essentially non-carcinogenic and non-mutagenic. The hits presented in this investigation could act as potent ATP-competitive mTOR inhibitors, representing a platform for the future discovery of drugs from marine natural origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shraddha Parate
- Division of Applied Life Science, Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Research Center (PMBBRC), Gyeongsang National University (GNU), 501 Jinju-daero, Jinju 52828, Korea; (S.P.); (G.L.)
| | - Vikas Kumar
- Division of Life Sciences, Department of Bio & Medical Big Data (BK21 Program), Research Institute of Natural Science (RINS), Gyeongsang National University (GNU), 501 Jinju-daero, Jinju 52828, Korea; (V.K.); (S.R.)
| | - Gihwan Lee
- Division of Applied Life Science, Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Research Center (PMBBRC), Gyeongsang National University (GNU), 501 Jinju-daero, Jinju 52828, Korea; (S.P.); (G.L.)
| | - Shailima Rampogu
- Division of Life Sciences, Department of Bio & Medical Big Data (BK21 Program), Research Institute of Natural Science (RINS), Gyeongsang National University (GNU), 501 Jinju-daero, Jinju 52828, Korea; (V.K.); (S.R.)
| | - Jong Chan Hong
- Division of Applied Life Science, Plant Molecular Biology and Biotechnology Research Center (PMBBRC), Gyeongsang National University (GNU), 501 Jinju-daero, Jinju 52828, Korea; (S.P.); (G.L.)
- Correspondence: (J.C.H.); (K.W.L.); Tel.: +82-55-772-1360 (K.W.L.)
| | - Keun Woo Lee
- Division of Life Sciences, Department of Bio & Medical Big Data (BK21 Program), Research Institute of Natural Science (RINS), Gyeongsang National University (GNU), 501 Jinju-daero, Jinju 52828, Korea; (V.K.); (S.R.)
- Correspondence: (J.C.H.); (K.W.L.); Tel.: +82-55-772-1360 (K.W.L.)
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Oxidative Stress Mediated Cytotoxicity, Cell Cycle Arrest, and Apoptosis Induced by Rosa damascena in Human Cervical Cancer HeLa Cells. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2021; 2021:6695634. [PMID: 33574980 PMCID: PMC7861940 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6695634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Rosa damascena Mill (Damask rose), belonging to the Rosaceae family, is known for medicinal purposes in traditional medicine system. However, its anticancer activity has not been studied yet in detail. Herein, we aimed to investigate the cytotoxic effects of R. damascena hexane (RA-HE) and methanolic (RA-ME) extracts against human breast (MCF-7), lung epithelial (A-549), and cervical (HeLa) cancer cells. The RA-HE and RA-ME showed more potent cytotoxic effects against HeLa cells with an IC50 of 819.6 and 198.4 μg/ml, respectively. Further, cytotoxic concentrations of most effective extract (RA-ME) were used to evaluate the mechanism of cytotoxicity involved in HeLa cells. A concentration-dependent induction of lipid peroxidation (LPO) and reduction of glutathione (GSH) in HeLa cells treated with 250-1000 μg/ml of RA-ME confirms the association of oxidative stress. We also detected a noteworthy increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and a decline in mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) level in RA-ME-exposed HeLa cells. Flow cytometric data showed a strong dose-response relationship in cell cycle analysis between subG1 phase in HeLa cells and RA-ME treatment. Similarly, a concentration-dependent increase was recorded with Annexin V assay in HeLa cells going to late apoptosis. In conclusion, our findings suggest that RA-ME-induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis in HeLa cells are mediated by oxidative stress.
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In Vitro and In Silico Evaluation of Anticancer Activity of New Indole-Based 1,3,4-Oxadiazoles as EGFR and COX-2 Inhibitors. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25215190. [PMID: 33171861 PMCID: PMC7664637 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25215190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) are crucial targetable enzymes in cancer management. Therefore, herein, new 2-[(5-((1H-indol-3-yl)methyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)thio]-N-(thiazol/benzothiazol-2-yl)acetamides (2a-i) were designed and synthesized as EGFR and COX-2 inhibitors. The cytotoxic effects of compounds 2a-i on HCT116 human colorectal carcinoma, A549 human lung adenocarcinoma, and A375 human melanoma cell lines were determined using MTT assay. 2-[(5-((1H-Indol-3-yl)methyl)-1,3,4-oxadiazol-2-yl)thio]-N-(6-ethoxybenzothiazol-2-yl)acetamide (2e) exhibited the most significant anticancer activity against HCT116, A549, and A375 cell lines with IC50 values of 6.43 ± 0.72 μM, 9.62 ± 1.14 μM, and 8.07 ± 1.36 μM, respectively, when compared with erlotinib (IC50 = 17.86 ± 3.22 μM, 19.41 ± 2.38 μM, and 23.81 ± 4.17 μM, respectively). Further mechanistic assays demonstrated that compound 2e enhanced apoptosis (28.35%) in HCT116 cells more significantly than erlotinib (7.42%) and caused notable EGFR inhibition with an IC50 value of 2.80 ± 0.52 μM when compared with erlotinib (IC50 = 0.04 ± 0.01 μM). However, compound 2e did not cause any significant COX-2 inhibition, indicating that this compound showed COX-independent anticancer activity. The molecular docking study of compound 2e emphasized that the benzothiazole ring of this compound occupied the allosteric pocket in the EGFR active site. In conclusion, compound 2e is a promising EGFR inhibitor that warrants further clinical investigations.
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