1
|
Sarkar R, Paul D, Chatterjee A, Bhattacharya A, Pradhan S, Goswami RK, Sen P. Unveiling the anticancer potential of Pestalotioprolide E, an unexplored macrolide: Targeting TRXR1-TRX1-ASK1-P38 signaling cascade in triple-negative breast cancer. Toxicol In Vitro 2024:105920. [PMID: 39173682 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2024.105920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2024] [Accepted: 08/17/2024] [Indexed: 08/24/2024]
Abstract
Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is highly aggressive and metastatic in nature. Existing treatment modalities for TNBC are associated with severe side effects. Thioredoxin reductase (TRXR), the pivotal component of the thioredoxin system, remains overexpressed in various cancer cells including TNBC; promotes cell growth, proliferation, and metastasis, and inhibits apoptosis. Pestalotioprolide E is one of the potent macrolides, a class of secondary metabolites derived from an endophytic fungus Pestalotiopsis microspora with relatively unexplored biological activities. Our study revealed increased expression and activity of TRXR1 in MDA-MB-231 cells compared to the non-cancerous cells. In silico docking analysis and in vitro activity assay demonstrated that Pestalotioprolide E directly interacts with TRXR1 and inhibits its enzymatic activity. This inhibition induces apoptosis via TRX1/ASK1/P38MAPK death signaling cascade and retards metastasis through modulating VEGF, MMP-2, MMP-9, E-cadherin, N-cadherin in MDA-MB-231 cells. Taken together present study establishes TRXR1 as a molecular target for Pestalotioprolide E and its anticancer effect can be attributed to the inhibition of TRXR1 activity in MDA-MB-231.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ruma Sarkar
- School of Biological Science; B. D. Patel Institute of Paramedical Sciences, Charotar University of Science and Technology, CHARUSAT Campus, Changa 388421, Gujarat, India
| | - Debobrata Paul
- School of Chemical Science, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Jadavpur, Kolkata 700032, India
| | | | | | | | - Rajib K Goswami
- School of Chemical Science, Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, Jadavpur, Kolkata 700032, India.
| | | |
Collapse
|
2
|
Shen X, Xia Y, Lu H, Zheng P, Wang J, Chen Y, Xu C, Qiu C, Zhang Y, Xiao Z, Zou P, Cui R, Ni D. Synergistic targeting of TrxR1 and ATM/AKT pathway in human colon cancer cells. Biomed Pharmacother 2024; 174:116507. [PMID: 38565059 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2024.116507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Revised: 03/24/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Thioredoxin reductase 1 (TrxR1) has emerged as a promising target for cancer therapy. In our previous research, we discovered several new TrxR1 inhibitors and found that they all have excellent anti-tumor activity. At the same time, we found these TrxR1 inhibitors all lead to an increase in AKT phosphorylation in cancer cells, but the detailed role of AKT phosphorylation in TrxR1 inhibitor-mediated cell death remains unclear. In this study, we identified the combination of AKT and TrxR1 inhibitor displayed a strong synergistic effect in colon cancer cells. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the synergistic effect of auranofin (TrxR1 inhibitor) and MK-2206 (AKT inhibitor) was caused by ROS accumulation. Importantly, we found that ATM inhibitor KU-55933 can block the increase of AKT phosphorylation caused by auranofin, and exhibited a synergistic effect with auranofin. Taken together, our study demonstrated that the activation of ATM/AKT pathway is a compensatory mechanism to cope with ROS accumulation induced by TrxR1 inhibitor, and synergistic targeting of TrxR1 and ATM/AKT pathway is a promising strategy for treating colon cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Shen
- Affiliated Yueqing Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China.
| | - Yiqun Xia
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China.
| | - Hui Lu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China.
| | - Peisen Zheng
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China.
| | - Junqi Wang
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China.
| | - Yinghua Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China.
| | - Chenxin Xu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China.
| | - Chenyu Qiu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China.
| | - Yafei Zhang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China.
| | - Zhongxiang Xiao
- Affiliated Yueqing Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China.
| | - Peng Zou
- Affiliated Yueqing Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China.
| | - Ri Cui
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China.
| | - Daoyong Ni
- Affiliated Yueqing Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325035, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Patwardhan RS, Rai A, Sharma D, Sandur SK, Patwardhan S. Txnrd1 as a prognosticator for recurrence, metastasis and response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy and radiotherapy in breast cancer patients. Heliyon 2024; 10:e27011. [PMID: 38524569 PMCID: PMC10958228 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Thioredoxin reductase 1 (Txnrd1) is known to have prognostic significance in a subset of breast cancer patients. Despite the pivotal role of Txnrd1 in regulating several cellular and physiological processes in cancer progression and metastasis, its clinical significance is largely unrecognized. Here, we undertook a retrospective comprehensive meta-analysis of 13,322 breast cancer patients from 43 independent cohorts to assess prognostic and predictive roles of Txnrd1. We observed that Txnrd1 has a positive correlation with tumor grade and size and it is over-expressed in higher-grade and larger tumors. Further, hormone receptor-negative and HER2-positive tumors exhibit elevated Txnrd1 gene expression. Patients with elevated Txnrd1 expression exhibit significant hazards for shorter disease-specific and overall survival. While Txnrd1 has a positive correlation with tumor recurrence and metastasis, it has a negative correlation with time to recurrence and metastasis. Txnrd1High patients exhibit 2.5 years early recurrence and 1.3 years early metastasis as compared to Txnrd1Low cohort. Interestingly, patients with high Txnrd1 gene expression exhibit a pathologic complete response (pCR) to neoadjuvant chemotherapy, but they experience early recurrence after radiotherapy. Txnrd1High MDA-MB-231 cells exhibit significant ROS generation and reduced viability after doxorubicin treatment compared to Txnrd1Low MCF7 cells. Corroborating with findings from meta-analysis, Txnrd1 depletion leads to decreased survival, enhanced sensitivity to radiation induced killing, poor scratch-wound healing, and reduced invasion potential in MDA-MB-231 cells. Thus, Txnrd1 appears to be a potential predictor of recurrence, metastasis and therapy response in breast cancer patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raghavendra S. Patwardhan
- Radiation Biology & Health Sciences Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, 400085, India
| | - Archita Rai
- Radiation Biology & Health Sciences Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, 400085, India
- Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, 400094, India
| | - Deepak Sharma
- Radiation Biology & Health Sciences Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, 400085, India
- Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, 400094, India
| | - Santosh K. Sandur
- Radiation Biology & Health Sciences Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, 400085, India
- Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, 400094, India
| | - Sejal Patwardhan
- Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, 400094, India
- Patwardhan Lab, Advanced Centre for Treatment Research & Education in Cancer, (ACTREC), Tata Memorial Centre (TMC), Kharghar, Navi Mumbai, 410210, India
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Cao Y, Zhou X, Nie Q, Zhang J. Inhibition of the thioredoxin system for radiosensitization therapy of cancer. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 268:116218. [PMID: 38387331 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 01/28/2024] [Accepted: 02/04/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Radiotherapy (RT) stands as a cornerstone in the clinical armamentarium against various cancers due to its proven efficacy. However, the intrinsic radiation resistance exhibited by cancer cells, coupled with the adverse effects of RT on normal tissues, often compromises its therapeutic potential and leads to unwanted side effects. This comprehensive review aims to consolidate our understanding of how radiosensitizers inhibit the thioredoxin (Trx) system in cellular contexts. Notable radiosensitizers, including gold nanoparticles (GNPs), gold triethylphosphine cyanide ([Au(SCN) (PEt3)]), auranofin, ceria nanoparticles (CONPs), curcumin and its derivatives, piperlongamide, indolequinone derivatives, micheliolide, motexafin gadolinium, and ethane selenide selenidazole derivatives (SeDs), are meticulously elucidated in terms of their applications in radiotherapy. In this review, the sensitization mechanisms and the current research progress of these radiosensitizers are discussed in detail, with the overall aim of providing valuable insights for the judicious application of Trx system inhibitors in the field of cancer radiosensitization therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yisheng Cao
- School of Pharmacy, State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Xiedong Zhou
- School of Pharmacy, State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Qiuying Nie
- School of Pharmacy, State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, China
| | - Junmin Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, 730000, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Carlson N, House CD, Tambasco M. Toward a Transportable Cell Culture Platform for Evaluating Radiotherapy Dose Modifying Factors. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:15953. [PMID: 37958936 PMCID: PMC10648285 DOI: 10.3390/ijms242115953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The current tools for validating dose delivery and optimizing new radiotherapy technologies in radiation therapy do not account for important dose modifying factors (DMFs), such as variations in cellular repair capability, tumor oxygenation, ultra-high dose rates and the type of ionizing radiation used. These factors play a crucial role in tumor control and normal tissue complications. To address this need, we explored the feasibility of developing a transportable cell culture platform (TCCP) to assess the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of ionizing radiation. We measured cell recovery, clonogenic viability and metabolic viability of MDA-MB-231 cells over several days at room temperature in a range of concentrations of fetal bovine serum (FBS) in medium-supplemented gelatin, under both normoxic and hypoxic oxygen environments. Additionally, we measured the clonogenic viability of the cells to characterize how the duration of the TCCP at room temperature affected their radiosensitivity at doses up to 16 Gy. We found that (78±2)% of MDA-MB-231 cells were successfully recovered after being kept at room temperature for three days in 50% FBS in medium-supplemented gelatin at hypoxia (0.4±0.1)% pO2, while metabolic and clonogenic viabilities as measured by ATP luminescence and colony formation were found to be (58±5)% and (57±4)%, respectively. Additionally, irradiating a TCCP under normoxic and hypoxic conditions yielded a clonogenic oxygen enhancement ratio (OER) of 1.4±0.6 and a metabolic OER of 1.9±0.4. Our results demonstrate that the TCCP can be used to assess the RBE of a DMF and provides a feasible platform for assessing DMFs in radiation therapy applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Carlson
- Department of Physics, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182, USA;
| | - Carrie D. House
- Biology Department, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182, USA;
| | - Mauro Tambasco
- Department of Physics, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182, USA;
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Gencheva R, Cheng Q, Arnér ESJ. Thioredoxin reductase selenoproteins from different organisms as potential drug targets for treatment of human diseases. Free Radic Biol Med 2022; 190:320-338. [PMID: 35987423 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2022.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 06/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Human thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) is a selenoprotein with a central role in cellular redox homeostasis, utilizing a highly reactive and solvent-exposed selenocysteine (Sec) residue in its active site. Pharmacological modulation of TrxR can be obtained with several classes of small compounds showing different mechanisms of action, but most often dependent upon interactions with its Sec residue. The clinical implications of TrxR modulation as mediated by small compounds have been studied in diverse diseases, from rheumatoid arthritis and ischemia to cancer and parasitic infections. The possible involvement of TrxR in these diseases was in some cases serendipitously discovered, by finding that existing clinically used drugs are also TrxR inhibitors. Inhibiting isoforms of human TrxR is, however, not the only strategy for human disease treatment, as some pathogenic parasites also depend upon Sec-containing TrxR variants, including S. mansoni, B. malayi or O. volvulus. Inhibiting parasite TrxR has been shown to selectively kill parasites and can thus become a promising treatment strategy, especially in the context of quickly emerging resistance towards other drugs. Here we have summarized the basis for the targeting of selenoprotein TrxR variants with small molecules for therapeutic purposes in different human disease contexts. We discuss how Sec engagement appears to be an indispensable part of treatment efficacy and how some therapeutically promising compounds have been evaluated in preclinical or clinical studies. Several research questions remain before a wider application of selenoprotein TrxR inhibition as a first-line treatment strategy might be developed. These include further mechanistic studies of downstream effects that may mediate treatment efficacy, identification of isoform-specific enzyme inhibition patterns for some given therapeutic compounds, and the further elucidation of cell-specific effects in disease contexts such as in the tumor microenvironment or in host-parasite interactions, and which of these effects may be dependent upon the specific targeting of Sec in distinct TrxR isoforms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Radosveta Gencheva
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, 17177, Sweden
| | - Qing Cheng
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, 17177, Sweden
| | - Elias S J Arnér
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, 17177, Sweden; Department of Selenoprotein Research, National Tumor Biology Laboratory, National Institute of Oncology, 1122, Budapest, Hungary.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
NO news: S-(de)nitrosylation of cathepsins and their relationship with cancer. Anal Biochem 2022; 655:114872. [PMID: 36027970 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2022.114872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Tumor formation and progression have been much of a study over the last two centuries. Recent studies have seen different developments for the early diagnosis and treatment of the disease; some of which even promise survival of the patient. Cysteine proteases, mainly cathepsins have been unequivocally identified as putative worthy players of redox imbalance that contribute to the premonition and further progression of cancer by interfering in the normal extracellular and intracellular proteolysis and initiating a proteolytic cascade. The present review article focuses on the study of cancer so far, while establishing facts on how future studies focused on the cellular interrelation between nitric oxide (NO) and cancer, can direct their focus on cathepsins. For a tumor cell to thrive and synergize a cancerous environment, different mutations in the proteolytic and signaling pathways and the proto-oncogenes, oncogenes, and the tumor suppressor genes are made possible through cellular biochemistry and some cancer-stimulating environmental factors. The accumulated findings show that S-nitrosylation of cathepsins under the influence of NO-donors can prevent the invasion of cancer and cause cancer cell death by blocking the activity of cathepsins as well as the major denitrosylase systems using a multi-way approach. Faced with a conundrum of how to fill the gap between the dodging of established cancer hallmarks with cathepsin activity and gaining appropriate research/clinical accreditation using our hypothesis, the scope of this review also explores the interplay and crosstalk between S-nitrosylation and S-(de)nitrosylation of this protease and highlights the utility of charging thioredoxin (Trx) reductase inhibitors, low-molecular-weight dithiols, and Trx mimetics using efficient drug delivery system to prevent the denitrosylation or regaining of cathepsin activity in vivo. In foresight, this raises the prospect that drugs or novel compounds that target cathepsins taking all these factors into consideration could be deployed as alternative or even better treatments for cancer, though further research is needed to ascertain the safety, efficiency and effectiveness of this approach.
Collapse
|
8
|
Yao A, Storr SJ, Inman M, Barwell L, Moody CJ, Martin SG. Cytotoxic and Radiosensitising Effects of a Novel Thioredoxin Reductase Inhibitor in Brain Cancers. Mol Neurobiol 2022; 59:3546-3563. [PMID: 35344158 PMCID: PMC9148287 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-022-02808-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
The thioredoxin (Trx) system, a key antioxidant pathway, represents an attractive target for cancer therapy. This study investigated the chemotherapeutic and radiosensitising effects of a novel Trx reductase (TrxR) inhibitor, IQ10, on brain cancer cells and the underlying mechanisms of action. Five brain cancer cell lines and a normal cell type were used. TrxR activity and expression were assessed by insulin reduction assay and Western blotting, respectively. IQ10 cytotoxicity was evaluated using growth curve, resazurin reduction and clonogenic assays. Radiosensitivity was examined using clonogenic assay. Reactive oxygen species levels were examined by flow cytometry and DNA damage assessed by immunofluorescence. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-related gene expression was examined by RT-PCR array. IQ10 significantly inhibited TrxR activity but did not affect Trx system protein expression in brain cancer cells. The drug exhibited potent anti-proliferative and cytotoxic effects against brain cancer cells under both normoxic and hypoxic conditions in both 2D and 3D systems, with IC50s in the low micromolar range. It was up to ~ 1000-fold more potent than temozolomide. IQ10 substantially sensitised various brain cancer cells to radiation, with such effect being due, in part, to functional inhibition of TrxR, making cells less able to deal with oxidative stress and leading to increased oxidative DNA damage. IQ10 significantly downregulated EMT-associated gene expression suggesting potential anti-invasive and antimetastatic properties. This study suggests that IQ10 is a potent anticancer agent and could be used as either a single agent or combined with radiation, to treat brain cancers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anqi Yao
- Nottingham Breast Cancer Research Centre, School of Medicine, Biodiscovery Institute, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Sarah J Storr
- Nottingham Breast Cancer Research Centre, School of Medicine, Biodiscovery Institute, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Martyn Inman
- School of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Lucy Barwell
- Nottingham Breast Cancer Research Centre, School of Medicine, Biodiscovery Institute, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Christopher J Moody
- School of Chemistry, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Stewart G Martin
- Nottingham Breast Cancer Research Centre, School of Medicine, Biodiscovery Institute, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Patwardhan RS, Sharma D, Sandur SK. Thioredoxin reductase: An emerging pharmacologic target for radiosensitization of cancer. Transl Oncol 2022; 17:101341. [PMID: 35078017 PMCID: PMC8790659 DOI: 10.1016/j.tranon.2022.101341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Novel agents are required to increase the radiosensitivity of cancer and improve the outcome of radiotherapy. Thioredoxin (Trx) and thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) reduce the oxidized cysteine thiols in several proteins, which regulate cellular redox, survival, proliferation, DNA synthesis, transcription factor activity and apoptosis. TrxR is essential for maintaining a conducive redox state for tumor growth, survival and resistance to therapy. Therefore, it is an appealing pharmacological target for the radiosensitization of tumors. Ionizing radiation (IR) is known to cause cytotoxicity through ROS, oxidative stress and DNA damage. Inhibition of thioredoxin system augments IR induced oxidative stress and potentiates cytotoxic effects. However, TrxR also regulates several critical cellular processes in normal cells. Here, we highlight the pre-clinical research and pharmacological studies to surmise possible utility of different TrxR inhibitors for radiosensitization. This review provides a succinct perspective on the role of TrxR inhibitors during the radiotherapy of cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raghavendra S Patwardhan
- Radiation Biology and Health Sciences Division, Bio-Science Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400085, India; Homi Bhabha National Institute, Anushaktinagar, Mumbai 400094, India
| | - Deepak Sharma
- Radiation Biology and Health Sciences Division, Bio-Science Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400085, India; Homi Bhabha National Institute, Anushaktinagar, Mumbai 400094, India.
| | - Santosh K Sandur
- Radiation Biology and Health Sciences Division, Bio-Science Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai 400085, India; Homi Bhabha National Institute, Anushaktinagar, Mumbai 400094, India.
| |
Collapse
|