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Scharinger C. Task-irrelevant decorative pictures increase cognitive load during text processing but have no effects on learning or working memory performance: an EEG and eye-tracking study. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2024; 88:1362-1388. [PMID: 38502229 PMCID: PMC11142986 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-024-01939-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
Decorative pictures (DP) are often used in multimedia task materials and are commonly considered so-called seductive details as they are commonly not task-relevant. Typically, DP result in mixed effects on behavioral performance measures. The current study focused on the effects of DP on the cognitive load during text reading and working memory task performance. The theta and alpha frequency band power of the electroencephalogram (EEG) and pupil dilation served as proxies of cognitive load. The number of fixations, mean fixation durations, and the number of transitions served as proxies of the attentional focus. For both, text reading and n-back working memory tasks, the presence and congruency of DP were manipulated in four task conditions. DP did neither affect behavioral performance nor subjective ratings of emotional-motivational factors. However, in both tasks, DP increased the cognitive load as revealed by the EEG alpha frequency band power and (at least to some extent) by subjective effort ratings. Notably, the EEG alpha frequency band power was a quite reliable and sensitive proxy of cognitive load. Analyzing the EEG data stimulus-locked and fixation-related, the EEG alpha frequency band power revealed a difference in global and local cognitive load. In sum, the current study underlines the feasibility and use of EEG for multimedia research, especially when combined with eye-tracking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Scharinger
- Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien Tübingen, Schleichstr. 6, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.
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2
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Hazan-Liran B, Miller P. The Influence of Manipulating and Accentuating Task-Irrelevant Information on Learning Efficiency: Insights for Cognitive Load Theory. J Cogn 2024; 7:36. [PMID: 38638463 PMCID: PMC11025566 DOI: 10.5334/joc.361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024] Open
Abstract
The paper endorses Cognitive Load Theory and offers insights into the characterization of the mechanisms underlying extraneous cognitive load and their impact on basic learning. Students were asked to learn associations between eight base-code words and eight digits, based on an example, and to rapidly apply their new knowledge in a test section. Two groups of 60 university students participated in two experiments. The study was implemented as two distinct experiments, one using color names (e.g., blue, yellow) and the other using color-related word concepts (e.g., sky, banana) for stimulation. Each experiment had two conditions that manipulated the location and salience of task-irrelevant color information (extraneous cognitive load) and its congruity with the digits' corresponding base-code words. Findings indicated extraneous cognitive load has the potential to both sustain and undermine learning processes by varying the overall cognitive load, with gains and costs in learning efficiency resulting from essentially different processing scenarios.
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3
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Liao S, Yu L, Kruger JL, Reichle ED. Dynamic reading in a digital age: new insights on cognition. Trends Cogn Sci 2024; 28:43-55. [PMID: 37696692 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2023.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
People increasingly read text displayed on digital devices, including computers, handheld e-readers, and smartphones. Given this, there is rapidly growing interest in understanding how the cognitive processes that support the reading of static text (e.g., books, magazines, or newspapers) might be adapted to reading digital texts. Evidence from recent experiments suggests a complex interplay of visual and cognitive influences on how people engage with digital reading. Although readers can strategically adjust their reading behaviors in response to their immediate reading context, the efficacy of these strategies depends on cognitive, metacognitive, and motivational factors. A better understanding of the factors that influence reading offers the promise of leveraging digital technologies to enhance the reading experience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sixin Liao
- Department of Linguistics, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia 2109.
| | - Lili Yu
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia 2109
| | - Jan-Louis Kruger
- Department of Linguistics, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia 2109; UPSET Research Focus Area, North-West University, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa 1900
| | - Erik D Reichle
- School of Psychological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia 2109
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Trypke M, Stebner F, Wirth J. Two types of redundancy in multimedia learning: a literature review. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1148035. [PMID: 37213390 PMCID: PMC10192876 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1148035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Regarding the redundancy effect in multimedia learning environments, more consistency is needed in the theoretical assumptions and investigation of this effect. Current research lacks a comprehensive account of different redundant scenarios in which materials facilitate or inhibit learning and provides little conceptual guidance on how learning processes are affected by different types of redundancy. Theoretical assumptions refer to redundancy as a contentual overlap of information provided by the learning material; in this case, processing duplicated information strains the learners' limited cognitive capacities. Other assumptions refer to the role of processing limitations in working memory channels, including separate processing for visual and verbal information. In this case, an ineffective combination of sources leads to an overload of the limited working memory capacity. This paper reviews empirical research on the redundancy effect (63 studies) and classifies two types of redundancy: (1) content redundancy, and (2) working memory channel redundancy. From an instructional psychology perspective, the analyses reveal four different implementations of redundant scenarios: (1) adding narration to visualizations, (2) adding written text to visualizations, (3) adding written text to narration, and (4) adding written text to narrated visualizations. Regarding the effects of the two redundancy types within these scenarios, analyses indicate positive effects of content redundancy (affected by learners' prior knowledge), negative effects of working memory channel redundancy (regarding visualizations and written text), and positive effects of working memory channel redundancy (regarding narration and written text). Moreover, results point to factors that might moderate the effect of redundancy and illustrate interactions with existing multimedia effects. Overall, this review provides an overview of the state of empirical research and reveals that the consideration of both redundancy types provides further explanations in this field of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Trypke
- Institute of Educational Science, University of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany
- *Correspondence: Melanie Trypke,
| | - Ferdinand Stebner
- Institute of Educational Science, University of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany
| | - Joachim Wirth
- Institute of Educational Research, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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Effects of decorative pictures on mental processing demands and learning: An EEG and eye-tracking study. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2022; 231:103798. [PMID: 36427365 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2022.103798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2022] [Revised: 10/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Across two experiments, the effects of presenting decorative pictures (DP) alongside texts were assessed with respect to the mental processing demands during reading, learning outcomes, and subjective task experience. DP were thought to function as so-called seductive details. Eye-tracking and the electroencephalogram (EEG) were recorded during reading. Pupil dilation and the EEG theta (4-8 Hz) and alpha (8-13 Hz) frequency band power served as measures of the mental processing demands. Texts on features and habitats of animals served as learning materials. Working memory (WM) load was manipulated as an additional factor during reading. Neither the additional WM load nor DP had significant effects on learning outcomes, albeit in both experiments the increased WM load affected the physiological measures as expected. DP with a few different motifs generally were not very seductive (Experiment 1). DP with more diverse motifs resulted in increased mental processing demands as indicated by the EEG alpha frequency band power (Experiment 2). Subjective task experience was positively affected by the DP present in Experiment 2 as indicated by higher subjective ratings of interestingness, comprehensibility, emotionality, and aesthetical pleasantness when DP were present. In sum, the study indicates that DP with diverse motifs may function as seductive details, increasing mental processing demands without detrimental effects on learning outcomes.
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Picou EM, McAlexander SN, Day BC, Jirik KJ, Morrison AK, Tharpe AM. An evaluation of newborn hearing screening brochures and parental understanding of screening result terminology. Int J Audiol 2022:1-11. [PMID: 35522833 DOI: 10.1080/14992027.2022.2068082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess the suitability of newborn hearing screening brochures by evaluating current state-level brochures and pregnant people's understanding of screening result terminology. DESIGN In Study 1, state-level brochures were evaluated based on readability, design, picture appropriateness, and use of the word "refer." In Study 2, pregnant people completed a questionnaire that queried their understanding of and expected anxiety about three newborn hearing screening outcomes ("refer," "did not pass," and "pass"). STUDY SAMPLE In Study 1, 59 newborn hearing screening brochures were analysed. In Study 2, 43 pregnant people completed surveys during a prenatal appointment. RESULTS Most of the brochures were found deficient on at least one element. Thirty percent of brochures used the word "refer" to indicate a hearing screening failure; yet, fewer than half of participants understood its meaning. Ratings of expected anxiety were highest in response to the term "did not pass." CONCLUSIONS Based on four study criteria of brochure suitability, 88% of available state-level newborn hearing screening brochures should be modified to make them readily understandable by a broad educational demographic. Discretion in use of the term "refer" should be made when indicating screening results, because the term is not readily understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin M Picou
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.,Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Sarah N McAlexander
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.,Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Brittany C Day
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Karina J Jirik
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Alison Kemph Morrison
- Department of Communication Sciences and Special Education, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Anne Marie Tharpe
- Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, USA.,Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, USA
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Coppens LC, Postema CES, Schüler A, Scheiter K, van Gog T. Development of Attention and Accuracy in Learning a Categorization Task. Front Psychol 2021; 12:544135. [PMID: 33603696 PMCID: PMC7884629 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.544135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Being able to categorize objects as similar or different is an essential skill. An important aspect of learning to categorize is learning to attend to relevant features (i.e., features that determine category membership) and ignore irrelevant features of the to-be-categorized objects. Feature variability across objects of different categories is informative, because it allows inferring the rules underlying category membership. In this study, participants learned to categorize fictitious creatures (i.e., aliens). We measured attention to the aliens during learning using eye-tracking and calculated the attentional focus as the ratio of attention to relevant versus irrelevant features. As expected, participants’ categorization accuracy improved with practice; however, in contrast to our expectations, their attentional focus did not improve with practice. When computing the attentional focus, attention to the aliens’ eyes was disregarded, because while eyes attract a lot of attention, they did not vary across aliens (non-informative feature). Yet, an explorative analysis of attention to eyes suggested that participants’ attentional focus did become somewhat more efficient in that over time they learned to ignore the eyes. Results are discussed in the context of the need for instructional methods to improve attentional focus in learning to categorize.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonora C Coppens
- LEAD Graduate School & Research Network, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | - Anne Schüler
- Multiple Representations Lab, Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Katharina Scheiter
- LEAD Graduate School & Research Network, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Multiple Representations Lab, Leibniz-Institut für Wissensmedien, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Tamara van Gog
- LEAD Graduate School & Research Network, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Education, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
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Mikheeva M, Schneider S, Beege M, Rey GD. The influence of affective decorative pictures on learning statistics online. HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/hbe2.250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Mikheeva
- Psychology of Learning with Digital Media, Faculty of Humanities Chemnitz University of Technology Chemnitz Germany
| | - Sascha Schneider
- Psychology of Learning with Digital Media, Faculty of Humanities Chemnitz University of Technology Chemnitz Germany
| | - Maik Beege
- Psychology of Learning with Digital Media, Faculty of Humanities Chemnitz University of Technology Chemnitz Germany
| | - Günter Daniel Rey
- Psychology of Learning with Digital Media, Faculty of Humanities Chemnitz University of Technology Chemnitz Germany
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Eitel A, Endres T, Renkl A. Self-management as a Bridge Between Cognitive Load and Self-regulated Learning: the Illustrative Case of Seductive Details. EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s10648-020-09559-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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10
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Sewell JL, Maggio LA, Ten Cate O, van Gog T, Young JQ, O'Sullivan PS. Cognitive load theory for training health professionals in the workplace: A BEME review of studies among diverse professions: BEME Guide No. 53. MEDICAL TEACHER 2019; 41:256-270. [PMID: 30328761 DOI: 10.1080/0142159x.2018.1505034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
AIM Cognitive load theory (CLT) is of increasing interest to health professions education researchers. CLT has intuitive applicability to workplace settings, yet how CLT should inform teaching, learning, and research in health professions workplaces is unclear. METHOD To map the existing literature, we performed a scoping review of studies involving cognitive load, mental effort and/or mental workload in professional workplace settings within and outside of the health professions. We included actual and simulated workplaces and workplace tasks. RESULT Searching eight databases, we identified 4571 citations, of which 116 met inclusion criteria. Studies were most often quantitative. Methods to measure cognitive load included psychometric, physiologic, and secondary task approaches. Few covariates of cognitive load or performance were studied. Overall cognitive load and intrinsic load were consistently negatively associated with the level of experience and performance. Studies consistently found distractions and other aspects of workplace environments as contributing to extraneous load. Studies outside the health professions documented similar findings to those within the health professions, supporting relevance of CLT to workplace learning. CONCLUSION The authors discuss implications for workplace teaching, curricular design, learning environment, and metacognition. To advance workplace learning, the authors suggest future CLT research should address higher-level questions and integrate other learning frameworks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin L Sewell
- a Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology , University of California San Francisco , San Francisco , CA , USA
| | - Lauren A Maggio
- b Department of Medicine , Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences , Bethesda , MD , USA
| | - Olle Ten Cate
- c Center for Research and Development of Education , University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht , Netherlands
- d Department of Medicine, Research and Development in Medical Education , University of California San Francisco , San Francisco , CA , USA
| | - Tamara van Gog
- e Department of Education , Utrecht University , The Netherlands
| | - John Q Young
- f Department of Psychiatry , Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell , Hempstead , NY , USA
| | - Patricia S O'Sullivan
- d Department of Medicine, Research and Development in Medical Education , University of California San Francisco , San Francisco , CA , USA
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Rop G, Schüler A, Verkoeijen PP, Scheiter K, Gog TV. The effect of layout and pacing on learning from diagrams with unnecessary text. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2018; 32:610-621. [PMID: 30333684 PMCID: PMC6175313 DOI: 10.1002/acp.3445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2017] [Revised: 04/29/2018] [Accepted: 07/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Although the presentation of extraneous (i.e., irrelevant or unnecessary) information hinders learning, it is unclear whether and how layout and pacing influence this effect. In two experiments, participants learned how the heart functions using four different layouts: a diagram presented without unnecessary text (diagram only), with unnecessary text separated from the diagram (separated) or integrated into the diagram (integrated), or with separated unnecessary text and the instruction to integrate (integration instruction). In Experiment 1, study time was self-paced for half of the participants and system paced for the other half. There were no effects of layout and of pacing on learning, although system pacing was more effortful than self-pacing. In Experiment 2, which was system paced and employed eye tracking, the integrated condition showed worse learning outcomes than the separated condition. Moreover, in the integrated condition, participants made more integration attempts between the unnecessary text and the diagram than in the separated condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gertjan Rop
- Department of Psychology, Education, and Child StudiesErasmus University RotterdamRotterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Anne Schüler
- Leibniz‐Institut für WissensmedienTübingenGermany
| | - Peter P.J.L. Verkoeijen
- Department of Psychology, Education, and Child StudiesErasmus University RotterdamRotterdamThe Netherlands
- Learning and Innovation CenterAvans University of Applied SciencesBredaThe Netherlands
| | - Katharina Scheiter
- Leibniz‐Institut für WissensmedienTübingenGermany
- University of TübingenTübingenGermany
| | - Tamara Van Gog
- University of TübingenTübingenGermany
- Department of EducationUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
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Rop G, Verkoeijen PPJL, van Gog T. With task experience students learn to ignore the content, not just the location of irrelevant information. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2017.1299154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gertjan Rop
- Department of Psychology, Education, and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Peter P. J. L. Verkoeijen
- Department of Psychology, Education, and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands
- Learning and Innovation Center, Avans University of Applied Sciences, Breda, Netherlands
| | - Tamara van Gog
- Department of Psychology, Education, and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands
- Department of Education, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
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