Inducing Self-Explanation: a Meta-Analysis

Are you sure? Examining the potential benefits of truth-checking as a learning activity

Learners may be uncertain about whether encountered information is true. Uncertainty may encourage people to critically assess information's accuracy, serving as a kind of desirable difficulty that benefits learning. Uncertainty may also have negative effects, however, leading people to mistrust true information or to later misremember false information as true. In three experiments, participants read history statements. In one condition, all statements were true, and the participants knew it. In the other two conditions, some statements were true, and others were false. Participants were either told the statements' accuracy or they guessed the statements' accuracy prior to feedback, a manipulation we refer to as truth-checking. All participants were then tested on recalling the true information and on recognising true versus false statements. We observed a significant benefit of truth-checking in one of the three experiments, suggesting that truth-checking may have some potential to enhance learning, perhaps by inducing people to encode to-be-learned information more deeply than they would otherwise. Even so, the benefit may come at a cost-truth-checking took significantly longer than study alone, and it led to a greater likelihood of thinking false information was true, suggesting costs of truth-checking may tend to outweigh benefits.

Using a picture (or a thousand words) for supporting spatial knowledge of a complex virtual environment

External representations powerfully support and augment complex human behavior. When navigating, people often consult external representations to help them find the way to go, but do maps or verbal instructions improve spatial knowledge or support effective wayfinding? Here, we examine spatial knowledge with and without external representations in two studies where participants learn a complex virtual environment. In the first study, we asked participants to generate their own maps or verbal instructions, partway through learning. We found no evidence of improved spatial knowledge in a pointing task requiring participants to infer the direction between two targets, either on the same route or on different routes, and no differences between groups in accurately recreating a map of the target landmarks. However, as a methodological note, pointing was correlated with the accuracy of the maps that participants drew. In the second study, participants had access to an accurate map or set of verbal instructions that they could study while learning the layout of target landmarks. Again, we found no evidence of differentially improved spatial knowledge in the pointing task, although we did find that the map group could recreate a map of the target landmarks more accurately. However, overall improvement was high. There was evidence that the nature of improvement across all conditions was specific to initial navigation ability levels. Our findings add to a mixed literature on the role of external representations for navigation and suggest that more substantial intervention-more scaffolding, explicit training, enhanced visualization, perhaps with personalized sequencing-may be necessary to improve navigation ability.

Can prompts improve self-explaining an online video lecture? Yes, but do not disturb!

In recent years, COVID-19 policy measures massively affected university teaching. Seeking an effective and viable way to transform their lecture material into asynchronous online settings, many lecturers relied on prerecorded video lectures. Whereas researchers in fact recommend implementing prompts to ensure students process those video lectures sufficiently, open questions about the types of prompts and role of students' engagement remain. We thus conducted an online field experiment with teacher students at a German university (N = 124; 73 female, 49 male). According to the randomly assigned experimental conditions, the online video lecture on topic Cognitive Apprenticeship was supplemented by (A) notes prompts (n = 31), (B) principle-based self-explanation prompts (n = 36), (C) elaboration-based self-explanation prompts (n = 29), and (D) both principle- and elaboration-based self-explanation prompts (n = 28). We found that the lecture fostered learning outcomes about its content regardless of the type of prompt. The type of prompt did induce different types of self-explanations, but had no significant effect on learning outcomes. What indeed positively and significantly affected learning outcomes were the students' self-explanation quality and their persistence (i.e., actual participation in a delayed posttest). Finally, the self-reported number of perceived interruptions negatively affected learning outcomes. Our findings thus provide ecologically valid empirical support for how fruitful it is for students to engage themselves in self-explaining and to avoid interruptions when learning from asynchronous online video lectures.

Deliberate Erring Improves Far Transfer of Learning More Than Errorless Elaboration and Spotting and Correcting Others' Errors

Transfer of learning is a fundamental goal of education but is challenging to achieve, especially where far transfer to remote contexts is at stake. How can we improve learners' flexible application of knowledge to distant domains? In a counterintuitive phenomenon termed the derring effect, deliberately committing and correcting errors in low-stakes contexts enhances learning more than avoiding errors. Whereas this benefit has been demonstrated with tests in domains similar to those in the initial learning task, the present set of three experiments (N = 120) investigated whether deliberate erring boosts far transfer of conceptual knowledge to dissimilar domains. Undergraduates studied scientific expository texts either by generating conceptually correct responses or by deliberately generating conceptually erroneous responses then correcting them. Deliberate erring improved not only retention (Experiment 1), but also far transfer on inferential test questions that required applying the learned concepts to remote knowledge domains (e.g., from biology/vaccines to geography/forest management techniques; Experiment 2). This advantage held even over a control that further involved spotting and correcting the same errors that one's peers had deliberately made (Experiment 3). Yet, learners failed to predict or recognize the benefits of deliberate erring even after the test. Altogether, these results suggest that the derring effect is specific to generating incorrect, but not correct, elaborations. Neither does mere exposure to others' errors nor juxtaposing these errors with the correct responses suffice. Rather, guiding learners to personally commit and correct deliberate errors is vital for enhancing generalization and far transfer of learning to distant knowledge domains.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10648-023-09739-z.

Using commonly-available technologies to create online multimedia lessons through the application of the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning

Principles derived from the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML; Mayer in: Multimedia learning, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2021) provide valuable guidance for enlisting commonly-available technologies to create effective online multimedia lessons. Specifically, CTML can guide instructional designers on the use of slide-sharing programs to create concise, narrated animation segments; the use of survey programs to interpolate questions and prompts between these segments to facilitate generative learning activities; and the use of video-sharing sites to provide learners with control over relatively superficial aspects of instruction. The application of CTML to the design of online multimedia lessons raises a number of theoretical and practical questions, including the need to better understand the relationship between working memory capacity and working memory duration, the importance of retrieval as a learning process, and the relative impact of selection and organization processes on learning.

Combining Retrieval Practice and Generative Learning in Educational Contexts

Abstract. Engaging learners in practicing the retrieval of learned information fosters the consolidation of learners’ mental representations and hence long-term retention. Retrieval practice research has enriched the instructional design literature by providing a wealth of evidence for these benefits of retrieval-based learning and thus emphasizing the value of means to consolidate knowledge. The present article makes the case that a fruitful next step could be to focus on the interplay between retrieval practice and generative activities. Rather than consolidating mental representations, generative activities should have as their main function the construction of coherent mental representations. Hence, from a theoretical perspective, generative activities and retrieval practice should functionally complement each other; hence, combinations of both activities might be particularly suitable to promote lasting learning. Given the challenge to beneficially combine these activities, we discuss open questions that could substantially advance both the retrieval practice and the generative learning field.

Immersive virtual reality in STEM: is IVR an effective learning medium and does adding self-explanation after a lesson improve learning outcomes?

The goal of the current study was to investigate the effects of an immersive virtual reality (IVR) science simulation on learning in a higher educational setting, and to assess whether using self-explanation has benefits for knowledge gain. A sample of 79 undergraduate biology students (40 females, 37 males, 2 non-binary) learned about next-generation sequencing using an IVR simulation that lasted approximately 45 min. Students were randomly assigned to one of two instructional conditions: self-explanation (n = 41) or control (n = 38). The self-explanation group engaged in a 10 min written self-explanation task after the IVR biology lesson, while the control group rested. The results revealed that the IVR simulation led to a significant increase in knowledge from the pre- to post-test (ß _Posterior = 3.29). There were no differences between the self-explanation and control groups on knowledge gain, procedural, or conceptual transfer. Finally, the results indicate that the self-explanation group reported significantly higher intrinsic cognitive load (ß _Posterior = .35), and extraneous cognitive load (ß _Posterior = .37), and significantly lower germane load (ß _Posterior =  - .38) than the control group. The results suggest that the IVR lesson was effective for learning, but adding a written self-explanation task did not increase learning after a long IVR lesson.

Determining an Evidence Base for Particular Fields of Educational Practice: A Systematic Review of Meta-Analyses on Effective Mathematics and Science Teaching

The call for evidence-based practice in education emphasizes the need for research to provide evidence for particular fields of educational practice. With this systematic literature review we summarize and analyze aggregated effectiveness information from 41 meta-analyses published between 2004 and 2019 to inform evidence-based practice in a particular field. In line with target specifications in education that are provided for a certain school subject and educational level, we developed and adopted a selection heuristic for filtering aggregated effect sizes specific to both science and mathematics education and the secondary student population. The results include 78 context-specific aggregated effect sizes based on data from over one million students. The findings encompass a multitude of different teaching strategies, most of which offer a measurable advantage to alternatives. Findings demonstrate that context-specific effect size information may often differ from more general effect size information on teaching effectiveness and adherence to quality standards varies in sampled meta-analyses. Thus, although meta-analytic research has strongly developed over the last few years, providing context-specific and high-quality evidence still needs to be a focus in the field of secondary mathematics and science teaching and beyond.

Neurodiversity in medical education: How can we improve postgraduate learning for neurodiverse doctors?

Recently, there has been an important drive to increase diversity in medical education, which could potentially translate to improved outcomes for patients. Despite this, evidence on how to support neurodiverse doctors is limited. In this article the author reflects on their experience of postgraduate medical education as a doctor with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and considers how the learning environment can be improved to help neurodiverse doctors reach their potential. This includes increasing the diversity of senior role models, using a cognitive apprenticeship model, employing teaching strategies which allow learners to elaborate their individual thought processes, and providing appropriate timely feedback.

Meta-analyses as a privileged information source for informing teachers' practice?

Abstract. Inspired by evidence-based medicine, many researchers in the field of learning and instruction assume that meta-analyses are the best scientific information source to inform teachers' practice. This position is evaluated critically. For this purpose, I first clarify my fundamental assumptions about employing evidence for educational practice, as they form the basis for later argumentations (e.g., scientific evidence is just one of several important information sources for teachers). Then, the numerous disadvantages of meta-analyses as an information source for teachers are outlined (e.g., piecemeal information, partly inconsistent information) and, on this basis, I argue that they should not be considered a privileged source. Theories (including instructional models) provide some key advantages (e.g., coherent information) so that they should be seen as a prime information source. Nevertheless, theories also have some disadvantages so that teachers might be best advised to rely on multiple sources, and integrate them when trying to improve their practice. Finally, potential objections to theories as privileged information source are discussed.

Learning-by-Teaching Without Audience Presence or Interaction: When and Why Does it Work?

Teaching the contents of study materials by providing explanations to fellow students can be a beneficial instructional activity. A learning-by-teaching effect can also occur when students provide explanations to a real, remote, or even fictitious audience that cannot be interacted with. It is unclear, however, which underlying mechanisms drive learning by non-interactive teaching effects and why several recent studies did not replicate this effect. This literature review aims to shed light on when and why learning by non-interactive teaching works. First, we review the empirical literature to comment on the different mechanisms that have been proposed to explain why learning by non-interactive teaching may be effective. Second, we discuss the available evidence regarding potential boundary conditions of the non-interactive teaching effect. We then synthesize the available empirical evidence on processes and boundary conditions to provide a preliminary theoretical model of when and why non-interactive teaching is effective. Finally, based on our model of learning by non-interactive teaching, we outline several promising directions for future research and recommendations for educational practice.

Das Potenzial kooperativen Lernens ausschöpfen: Die Bedeutung der transaktiven Kommunikation für eine lernwirksame Zusammenarbeit

Zusammenfassung. Kooperatives Lernen eröffnet Chancen und birgt gleichzeitig Risiken für den Wissenserwerb. Der Beitrag arbeitet die Bedeutung der transaktiven Kommunikation als zentralen Wirkmechanismus für den genuinen Mehrwert kooperativen Lernens heraus. Unter transaktiver Kommunikation wird die fachinhaltliche Bezugnahme auf den Lernpartner verstanden, wobei niedrig-transaktive (z.B. paraphrasierende) von hoch-transaktiven (z.B. integrierenden) Äußerungen unterschieden werden. Es werden Bedingungen, unter denen sich transaktive Kommunikation positiv auf Lernprozesse auswirken kann, in den Bereichen individuelle Kommunikationsfähigkeiten, Gruppenzusammensetzung, Aufgabenstellung und methodisch-didaktische Umsetzung analysiert. Es wird deutlich, dass die Bedingungen eine transaktive Kommunikation sowohl zulassen als auch erfordern müssen, damit kooperatives Lernen effektiv sein kann. Daraus ergeben sich Ansatzpunkte für die Förderung transaktiver Kommunikation und somit für die Steigerung der Wirksamkeit kooperativen Lernens. Abschließend werden Forschungsdesiderata aufgezeigt.

Dyadic explanations during preparatory self-study enhance learning: A randomised controlled study

OBJECTIVES

The objective of the present study was to investigate to which extent preparatory self-study can be improved by encouraging students to engage in individual self-explanations or dyadic explanations (ie in pairs). Individual self-explanations refer to an act of metacognition in which students, after having processed a certain amount of information, attempt to explain their understanding to themselves of what was just learned. Dyadic explanations refer to the same process, but instead of explaining to oneself, the student explains his/her understanding to another student.

METHOD

An experiment was conducted in which 120 medical students studied a video-recorded lecture on the role of protein synthesis inhibition on memory reconsolidation. Participants were randomly allocated to one of four conditions: (1) a control condition in which they listened to the lecture once; (2) a control condition in which they listened to the lecture twice; (3) an experimental condition in which they had to listen to the lecture and provide self-explanations individually; and (4) an experimental condition in which they had to listen to the lecture and provide dyadic explanations. Participants' knowledge regarding the topic was measured three times: at the start and end of the experiment, and one week after the experiment to determine knowledge retention. Data were analysed by means of a 2 × 2 and 4 × 3 repeated-measures ANOVA.

RESULTS

The results suggest that participants who engaged in individual self- or dyadic explanations significantly outperformed participants in the two control conditions in terms of learning and retention (F = 5.67, Wilks Λ = 0.94, P = .019, η²  = 0.05). Moreover, the results suggest that dyadic explanations were more effective than individual self-explanations (F = 3.70, Wilks Λ = 0.83, P = .002, η²  = 0.09).

CONCLUSIONS

These outcomes suggest that encouraging students to work in pairs or in small teams to prepare for a learning event results in superior preparation and learning.

"Students with Academic Difficulties: Benefits of a Study Skills Group Compared to an Emotional Skills Group"

"Students can encounter difficulties in their academic careers, regarding their studying skills, for instance, or experiencing negative emotions. Both are amenable to training and related to one another. This study aimed to examine the efficacy of two interventions focusing on studying skills or emotional skills. Two groups of students with academic difficulties participated: 30 worked on study-related aspects (Study skills group); and the other 30 attended lessons on emotions in everyday life (Emotional skills group). They were tested before and after the training on measures of their motivation to learn, self–regulated learning strategies, and emotions (positive and negative emotions). The results showed that both groups benefited from the training. The Study skills group improved specifically in incremental theory of intelligence (d=0.94, p<0.001), self–regulated learning strategies (organization: d=0.74, p<0.001; elaboration: d=0.58, p<0.001; preparing for exams: d=0.78, p<0.001, specific effects), and more positive emotions about their academic performance (d=0.64, p<0.001, transfer effect). The Emotional skills group showed smaller effects on study-related aspects (0.10≤d≤0.49), with a large effect on negative emotions about the self (d=– .87). These results offer insight on how to approach students’ academic difficulties."

iSTART StairStepper—Using Comprehension Strategy Training to Game the Test

Literacy skills are critical for future success, yet over 60% of high school seniors lack proficient reading skills according to standardized tests. The focus on high stakes, standardized test performance may lead educators to “teach-to-the-test” rather than supporting transferable comprehension strategies that students need. StairStepper can fill this gap by blending necessary test prep and reading comprehension strategy practice in a fun, game-based environment. StairStepper is an adaptive literacy skill training game within Interactive Strategy Training for Active Reading and Thinking (iSTART) intelligent tutoring system. StairStepper is unique in that it models text passages and multiple-choice questions of high-stakes assessments, iteratively supporting skill acquisition through self-explanation prompts and scaffolded, adaptive feedback based on performance and self-explanations. This paper describes an experimental study employing a delayed-treatment control design to evaluate users’ perceptions of the StairStepper game and its influence on reading comprehension scores. Results indicate that participants enjoyed the visual aspects of the game environment, wanted to perform well, and considered the game feedback helpful. Reading comprehension scores of students in the treatment condition did not increase. However, the comprehension scores of the control group decreased. Collectively, these results indicate that the StairStepper game may fill the intended gap in instruction by providing enjoyable practice of essential reading comprehension skills and test preparation, potentially increasing students’ practice persistence while decreasing teacher workload.

Benefits of Writing an Explanation During Pauses in Multimedia Lessons

Generative learning theory posits that learners engage more deeply and produce better learning outcomes when they engage in selecting, organizing, and integrating processes during learning. The present experiments examine whether the generative learning activity of generating explanations can be extended to online multimedia lessons and whether prompts to engage in this generative learning activity work better than more passive instruction. Across three experiments, college students learned about greenhouse gasses from a 4-part online lesson involving captioned animations and subsequently took a posttest. After each part, learners were asked to generate an explanation (write-an-explanation), write an explanation using provided terms (write-a-focused-explanation), rewrite a provided explanation (rewrite-an-explanation), read a provided explanation (read-an-explanation), or simply move on to the next part (no-activity). Overall, students in the write-an-explanation group (Experiments 2 and 3), write-a-focused-explanation group (Experiment 2), and rewrite-an-explanation group (Experiment 3) performed significantly better on a delayed posttest than the no-activity group, but the groups did not differ significantly on an immediate posttest (Experiment 1). These results are consistent with generative learning theory and help identify generative learning strategies that improve online multimedia learning, thereby priming active learning with passive media.

Consensus statement on the content of clinical reasoning curricula in undergraduate medical education

INTRODUCTION

Effective clinical reasoning is required for safe patient care. Students and postgraduate trainees largely learn the knowledge, skills and behaviours required for effective clinical reasoning implicitly, through experience and apprenticeship. There is a growing consensus that medical schools should teach clinical reasoning in a way that is explicitly integrated into courses throughout each year, adopting a systematic approach consistent with current evidence. However, the clinical reasoning literature is 'fragmented' and can be difficult for medical educators to access. The purpose of this paper is to provide practical recommendations that will be of use to all medical schools.

METHODS

Members of the UK Clinical Reasoning in Medical Education group (CReME) met to discuss what clinical reasoning-specific teaching should be delivered by medical schools (what to teach). A literature review was conducted to identify what teaching strategies are successful in improving clinical reasoning ability among medical students (how to teach). A consensus statement was then produced based on the agreed ideas and the literature review, discussed by members of the consensus statement group, then edited and agreed by the authors.

RESULTS

The group identified 30 consensus ideas that were grouped into five domains: (1) clinical reasoning concepts, (2) history and physical examination, (3) choosing and interpreting diagnostic tests, (4) problem identification and management, and (5) shared decision making. The literature review demonstrated a lack of effectiveness for teaching the general thinking processes involved in clinical reasoning, whereas specific teaching strategies aimed at building knowledge and understanding led to improvements. These strategies are synthesised and described.

CONCLUSION

What is taught, how it is taught, and when it is taught can facilitate clinical reasoning development more effectively through purposeful curriculum design and medical schools should consider implementing a formal clinical reasoning curriculum that is horizontally and vertically integrated throughout the programme.

The Science of Workplace Instruction: Learning and Development Applied to Work

Learning is the engagement in mental processes resulting in the acquisition and retention of knowledge, skills, and/or affect over time and applied when needed. Building on this definition, we integrate the science of training and the science of learning to propose a new science of workplace instruction, linking the design of instructional events to instructional outcomes such as transfer and job performance through the mediating effects of learner events and learning outcomes. We propose three foundational elements: the learner, instructional principles, and training delivery (methods and media). Understanding and applying instructional principles are the primary methods for enhancing training effectiveness; thus, we detail 15 empirically supported principles. We then discuss the erroneous pursuit of aptitude-by-treatment interactions under the guise of learner styles and age-specific instruction. Finally, we offer suggestions for future research that draw on the foundation of instructional principles to optimize self-directed learning and learning in synthetic learning environments.

Generative Learning: Which Strategies for What Age?

Generative learning strategies are intended to improve students’ learning by prompting them to actively make sense of the material to be learned. But are they effective for all students? This review provides an overview of six popular generative learning strategies: concept mapping, explaining, predicting, questioning, testing, and drawing. Its main purpose is to review for what ages the effectiveness of these strategies has been demonstrated and whether there are indications of age-related differences in their effectiveness. The description of each strategy covers (1) how it is supposed to work, (2) the evidence on its effectiveness in different age groups, and (3) if there are age-related differences in its effectiveness. It is found that while all six generative learning strategies reviewed have proven effective for university students, evidence is mixed for younger students. Whereas some strategies (practice testing, predicting) seem to be effective already in lower-elementary-school children, others (drawing, questioning) seem to be largely ineffective until secondary school. The review closes with a call for research on the cognitive and metacognitive prerequisites of generative learning that can explain these differences.

Psychological foundations of emerging technologies for teaching and learning in higher education

As the research on the use of educational technologies increases, greater focus is being placed on the psychological processes underlying teaching and learning with these tools. In this research review, we examine six contemporary technologies identified in the 2020 edition of the Horizon Report through the lens of educational psychology theory. Specifically, we highlight the educational, cognitive, and social psychological processes that unfold during teaching and learning with each technology and illustrate how considering these processes can inform study and use of educational technologies and subsequent learning outcomes.

Explanation recruits comparison in a category-learning task

Generating explanations can be highly effective in promoting category learning; however, the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. We propose that engaging in explanation can recruit comparison processes, and that this in turn contributes to the effectiveness of explanation in supporting category learning. Three experiments evaluated the interplay between explanation and various comparison strategies in learning artificial categories. In Experiment 1, as expected, prompting participants to explain items' category membership led to (a) higher ratings of self-reported comparison processing and (b) increased likelihood of discovering a rule underlying category membership. Indeed, prompts to explain led to more self-reported comparison than did direct prompts to compare pairs of items. Experiment 2 showed that prompts to compare all members of a particular category ("group comparison") were more effective in supporting rule learning than were pairwise comparison prompts. Experiment 3 found that group comparison (as assessed by self-report) partially mediated the relationship between explanation and category learning. These results suggest that one way in which explanation benefits category learning is by inviting comparisons in the service of identifying broad patterns.