Tracing Enhances Recall and Transfer of Knowledge of the Water Cycle

A Systematic Meta-analysis of the Reliability and Validity of Subjective Cognitive Load Questionnaires in Experimental Multimedia Learning Research

For more than three decades, cognitive load theory has been addressing learning from a cognitive perspective. Based on this instructional theory, design recommendations and principles have been derived to manage the load on working memory while learning. The increasing attention paid to cognitive load theory in educational science quickly culminated in the need to measure its types of cognitive load — intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive load which additively contribute to the overall load. In this meta-analysis, four frequently used cognitive load questionnaires were examined concerning their reliability (internal consistency) and validity (construct validity and criterion validity). Results revealed that the internal consistency of the subjective cognitive load questionnaires can be considered satisfactory across all four questionnaires. Moreover, moderator analyses showed that reliability estimates of the cognitive load questionnaires did not differ between educational settings, domains of the instructional materials, presentation modes, or number of scale points. Correlations among the cognitive load types partially contradict theory-based assumptions, whereas correlations with learning-related variables support assumptions derived from cognitive load theory. In particular, results seem to support the three-factor model consisting of intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous cognitive load, and germane cognitive load. Results are discussed in relation to current trends in cognitive load theory and recommendations for the future use of cognitive load questionnaires in experimental research are suggested.

Does Touching Real Objects Affect Learning?

Based on theories of multimedia learning, the present study investigated whether the haptic sense serves as an additional channel to enhance the learning experience and learning outcomes. We therefore set up an experimental exhibition with two showrooms. In the first showroom, the sensory access of the participants to the exhibition objects was systematically varied in a 2 × 2 design with the between-subjects factors vision and haptics. While one group of participants could touch and see the objects, others could either only see or only touch them. The fourth group of participants found a showroom without objects. To address the auditory access, all participants were provided with information about each object via an audio guide. In the second showroom, further information was presented using posters. This showroom was the same for every participant. We aimed to investigate whether the haptic experience in the first showroom served as a motivator to engage further with the topic. The participants filled out questionnaires before visiting the first showroom, after visiting the first showroom, and after visiting the second showroom. To investigate the differences between the experimental groups on different outcomes, a memory test, a knowledge test, and various motivational-affective scales were used. The long-term effects of the information presentation were measured after 3 weeks. We found an advantage for recalling the objects and a heightened negative affect due to the haptic experience. Implications and further directions for this research will be discussed.