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Chen H, Wang L, Wang Y, Ni Z, Xia B, Qiu R. New Perspective to Evaluate the Carbon Offsetting by Urban Blue-Green Infrastructure: Direct Carbon Sequestration and Indirect Carbon Reduction. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:12966-12975. [PMID: 38990074 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c07337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/12/2024]
Abstract
Urban blue-green infrastructure (BGI) offers a multitude of ecological advantages to residents, thereby playing a pivotal role in fortifying urban resilience and fostering the development of climate-resilient cities. Nonetheless, current research falls short of a comprehensive analysis of BGI's overall potential for carbon reduction and its indirect carbon reduction impact. To fill this research gap, we utilized the integrated valuation of ecosystem services and trade-offs model and remote sensing estimation algorithm to quantify the direct carbon sequestration and resultant indirect carbon reduction facilitated by the BGI within the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area (GBA) (China). To identify the regions that made noteworthy contributions to carbon offsets and outliers, spatial autocorrelation analysis was also employed. The findings of this study reveal that in 2019, the BGI within the study area contributed an overall carbon offset of 1.5 × 108 t·C/yr, of which 3.5 × 107 and 11.0 × 107 t·C/yr were the result of direct carbon sequestration and indirect carbon reduction, respectively. The GBA's total CO2 emissions were 1.1 × 108 t in 2019. While the direct carbon sequestration offset 32.0% of carbon emissions, the indirect carbon reduction mitigated 49.9% of potential carbon emissions. These results highlight the critical importance of evaluating BGI's indirect contribution to carbon reduction. The findings of this study provide a valuable reference for shaping management policies that prioritize the protection and restoration of specific areas, thereby facilitating the harmonized development of carbon offset capabilities within urban agglomerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanxi Chen
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Lu Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yafei Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Zhuobiao Ni
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural & Rural Pollution Abatement and Environmental Safety, College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Beicheng Xia
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Rongliang Qiu
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Agricultural & Rural Pollution Abatement and Environmental Safety, College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
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Sadat M, Salehi E, Amiri MJ, Ehsani AH. Spatiotemporal ecosystem services: Response to structural changes (A case study in Lahijan, Iran). INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 2024; 20:1099-1111. [PMID: 37732587 DOI: 10.1002/ieam.4843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023]
Abstract
Structure and function are the inherent characteristics of each ecosystem providing various services such as clean air, extreme weather mitigation, and mental and physical well-being. The objective of this study is to develop a unified model combining Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services, ecological network (EN), and correlation analysis to investigate changes in ecosystem structure, function, and process. In this context, carbon sequestration, soil reduction, and flood risk mitigation were quantified from 2000 to 2020 and predicted for 2040 using the cellular automata and Markov chain (CA-Markov) model. Finally, correlation analysis was used to analyze the relationship over time between the land use (LU) classes and the components of the forest EN that provide and exchange desired ecosystem services (ESs). Thus, the changes in LU in the region in recent years led to significant reduction of ESs in the region as well as changes in the interaction between services. These changes, on the one hand, reduced the area of cores and increased isolated forest patches and, on the other hand, led to the horizontal expansion of cities and agricultural lands. If this trend continues, the decline in services provided by the ecosystem will persist into the future. Consequently, it can be said that structural changes in the ecosystem can lead to changes in the ESs. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2024;20:1099-1111. © 2023 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahdis Sadat
- Environmental Planning, College of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Esmail Salehi
- Environmental Planning, Management, College of Environment, Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Javad Amiri
- Environmental Planning, Management, College of Environment, Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Amir Houshang Ehsani
- Environmental Design Engineering, College of Environment, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
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Zhao F, Liu X, Zhao X, Wang H. Effects of production-living-ecological space changes on the ecosystem service value of the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration in China. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT 2023; 195:1133. [PMID: 37656251 DOI: 10.1007/s10661-023-11702-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
In the process of urbanization, exploring the relationship between production-living-ecological space (PLES) and ecosystem service value (ESV) is a major scientific issue in promoting regional sustainable development. The Yangtze River Delta (YRD) urban agglomeration is an ideal study area, which has the highest urbanization rate in China. Based on Landsat TM/ETM imaging data from 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2018, this study established a land use classification system of PLES. The spatial and temporal characteristics of PLES and ESV were analyzed, and the response of ESV to changes in PLES was investigated based on the elasticity formula. The results showed that from 2005 to 2018, production space and ecological space were the main types of PLES and exhibited an imbalance in transformation. Production space was the main transfer type, and living space significantly expanded. Moreover, from 2005 to 2018, the ESV of the YRD urban agglomeration showed an increasing and then decreasing trend. ESV presented a "high in the southwest and low in the northeast" spatial pattern. Furthermore, ESV was sensitive to changes in PLES, showing a trend of ecological space > production space > living space. However, the sensitivity of ESV to changes in PLES varied according to urbanization level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feifei Zhao
- School of Economics and Management, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, 443000, China
| | - Xiaoxue Liu
- School of Economics and Management, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, 443000, China
| | - Xu Zhao
- School of Economics and Management, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, 443000, China.
| | - Hao Wang
- School of Economics and Management, China Three Gorges University, Yichang, 443000, China
- College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Jishou University, Jishou, 427000, China
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Adelisardou F, Mederly P, Minkina T. Assessment of soil- and water-related ecosystem services with coupling the factors of climate and land-use change (Example of the Nitra region, Slovakia). ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2023; 45:6605-6620. [PMID: 37344755 PMCID: PMC10403436 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-023-01656-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
Climate and land use change can profoundly impact the provision of ecosystem services (ES) over time, particularly in the landscape of open fields along with growing urbanization and rising demand for space, food and energy. Policymakers are keen on knowing the combined effects of climate and land use change on ESs as a critical issue in human well-being. However, deep knowledge of how to identify these relationships is still lacking. This research aims to undertake a comprehensive assessment of soil- and water-related ES, and improvement in understanding how they are affected by climate and land use change. We applied the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs model for four ES (soil retention, nutrient delivery ratio, carbon storage, and water yield) for the years 2000 and 2018 in the Nitra region, Slovakia. We investigated the spatial and temporal changes in ES provision and determined the hotspots and coldspots of multiple ES. We found that soil retention, water yield, and carbon storage display a rising trend while the nutrient delivery ratio showed a decreasing trend over the past 18 years. Although all the mentioned services mainly attributed to land use change, the relative contribution of climate change was not deniable. Forests in the north and east and distributed urbanization and agriculture are the hotspots and coldspots for all ESs, respectively. Our results, in terms of determining the relative importance of land use and climate change and identifying the sensitive areas of ES provision, provide a scientific basis for ecosystem conservation and management priority setting at the local and regional levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Adelisardou
- Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Science and Informatics, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Nitra, Slovakia
| | - Peter Mederly
- Department of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Natural Science and Informatics, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Nitra, Slovakia.
| | - Tatian Minkina
- Department of Soil Science and Land Resources Estimation, Southern Federal University, Rostov-On-Don, Russia
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Zhang B, Zheng L, Wang Y, Li N, Li J, Yang H, Bi Y. Multiscale ecosystem service synergies/trade-offs and their driving mechanisms in the Han River Basin, China: implications for watershed management. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:43440-43454. [PMID: 36656473 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-25248-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The synergies and trade-offs between ecosystem services (ESs) and their driving mechanisms are hot topics in ecology and geography research. In recent years, the Han River Basin (HRB) has been continuously impacted by high-intensity urban sprawl and the Middle Route of the South-to-North Water Diversion Project, which have posed severe threats to the ecology and regional stability along the route. It is thus critical to study the ES synergies/trade-offs and their driving mechanisms. Based on the InVEST model and the value coefficient method, four vital types of ESs in the HRB, i.e., carbon sequestration (CS), food supply (FS), net primary productivity (NPP), and water yield (WY), were evaluated at town, county, and sub-watershed scales. Then, the Pearson correlation analysis was adopted to quantify the interrelationship among different ESs. Finally, the ordinary least squares (OLS) and geographical detector model (GDM) were applied to reveal the driving mechanisms of the ES synergies/trade-offs. The results showed that (1) apart from NPP, which increased at a rate of 7.54 gC·m-2·a-1 during 2000-2018, the other three types of ESs in the HRB deteriorated, with WY almost halving. (2) While CS, FS, and WY tended to exhibit high synergistic relationships, NPP showed mostly trade-off relationships, and the evaluation scale did not affect those main relationships. (3) Precipitation is the strongest driving force for the ES synergies/trade-offs in the HRB, and natural factors are generally more influential than socioeconomic factors on the ES synergies/trade-offs. This study warns of the deteriorating ecological condition of the HRB and provides empirical evidence for the synergistic enhancement of regional ESs and the optimization of ecological management policies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bowen Zhang
- School of Public Administration, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
- The Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Natural Resources for Legal Research, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Liang Zheng
- Changjiang Institute of Survey, Planning, Design and Research, Wuhan, 430074, China
- The Key Laboratory of Changjiang Regulation and Protection of Ministry of Water Resource, Wuhan, 430074, China
- The Key Laboratory of Water Network Engineering and Dispatching of Ministry of Water Resource, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Ying Wang
- School of Public Administration, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China.
| | - Na Li
- Wuhan Natural Resources Conservation and Utilization Center, Wuhan, 430014, China
| | - Jiangfeng Li
- School of Public Administration, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Hui Yang
- School of Public Administration, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
- The Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Natural Resources for Legal Research, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Yuzhe Bi
- School of Public Administration, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
- The Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Natural Resources for Legal Research, Wuhan, 430074, China
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Bech J. Correction to: Environmental geochemistry and health (EGAH) Special Issue ''reclamation of polluted soils for food production and human health: part 2''. ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2023; 45:1053. [PMID: 35303218 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-022-01238-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jaume Bech
- University of Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain.
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Ma T, Hu Q, Wang C, Lv J, Mi C, Shi R, Wang X, Yang Y, Wu W. Exploring the Relationship between Ecosystem Services under Different Socio-Economic Driving Degrees. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:16105. [PMID: 36498179 PMCID: PMC9741315 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192316105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The large-scale transformation of natural ecosystems to socio-economic development land types under human activities was a primary reason for the decline of regional ecosystem services. It is a key issue for regional ecosystem planning and management to reveal the relationship between ecosystem services of different land use types under different socio-economic driving degrees. However, the current related research was not in-depth. Based on the land use data of Wuhan City in 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020, this study classified land use into three categories according to the different degrees of human activities on natural ecosystem development: the land use of a natural ecosystem (LUNE), the land use of a productive ecosystem (LUPE), and the land use of a socio-economic system (LUSE). The InVEST model was used to simulate five ecosystem services (grain yield, water yield, carbon storage, habitat quality, and water purification), and the spatio-temporal distribution and functional transformation of the three land use types were analyzed. Results showed that with the intensified urban expansion in Wuhan, the LUSE types increased to 2.7 times that of the original. However, the natural land types basically maintained a stable area, coupling with the large-scale transformation between the LUPE and LUSE types. Land use change resulted in significant spatial changes of five ecosystem services, especially carbon storage and habitat quality. The correlation analysis indicated that the five kinds of ecosystem services mainly showed a synergistic relationship, meanwhile the LUSE type denoted the most significant correlation with ecosystem services among these three category types. This study indicated that besides the protection of natural ecosystems, the LUSE type would become the key land use type in the planning and management of improving regional ecological function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiantian Ma
- Agro-Environmental Protection Institute, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Tianjin 300170, China
| | - Qingbai Hu
- Agro-Environmental Protection Institute, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Tianjin 300170, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Hazardous Waste Safety Disposal and Recycling Technology, School of Environmental Science and Safety Engineering, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin 300384, China
| | - Changle Wang
- Agro-Environmental Protection Institute, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Tianjin 300170, China
| | - Jungang Lv
- Procuratoral Technology and Information Research Center, Supreme People’s Procuratorate, Beijing 100041, China
| | - Changhong Mi
- Agro-Environmental Protection Institute, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Tianjin 300170, China
| | - Rongguang Shi
- Agro-Environmental Protection Institute, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Tianjin 300170, China
- Key Laboratory Environment Factors Control Agriproduct Qual Safe, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Tianjin 300170, China
| | - Xiaoli Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Hazardous Waste Safety Disposal and Recycling Technology, School of Environmental Science and Safety Engineering, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin 300384, China
| | - Yanying Yang
- Agro-Environmental Protection Institute, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Tianjin 300170, China
| | - Wenhao Wu
- Agro-Environmental Protection Institute, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Tianjin 300170, China
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Cheng X, Xu Z, Yu S, Peng J. A wavelet coherence approach to detecting ecosystem services trade-off response to land use change. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2022; 316:115160. [PMID: 35588668 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Revised: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Clarifying the complex land use impacts on ecosystem services (ESs) trade-off will be beneficial to watershed sustainable development, especially through scientific land use management and decision making. Dongting Lake Basin (DLB) is not only one of the most significant ecological barriers for the Yangtze River Economic Belt, but also an important grain production base of China. The trade-off between the grain production (GP) and water purification (WP) has become increasingly prominent. Here, we chose DLB as a case study area, applied spatial continuous wavelet transform and wavelet coherence analysis, characterized the ES trade-off intensity by wavelet coherence coefficient, and explored the influence of land use type, conflict and intensity on the trade-off between GP and WP. The results showed that the trade-off intensity between GP and WP in the DLB in 2015 had alleviated compared with 2005, and the coherence coefficient had increased while maitaining the negative value. The trade-off intensity was the strongest in farmland and forest land, and weaker in grassland and water body. The impact of land use conflict mainly depended on the specific types of land use conversions. For the transects where land use conversions mainly appeared between farmland and forest land, the intensification of land use conflict would increase the trade-off intensity (2005: R2 = 0.3862, p < 0.05; 2015: R2 = 0.2543, p < 0.05), while for the transects dominated by conversions to water body and grassland, stronger land use conflicts would reduce the trade-off intensity (2005: R2 = 0.3438, p < 0.05; 2015: R2 = 0.2668, p < 0.05). The impact of land use intensity was also realized through the land use type, with lower interpretation ratio. In addition, the wavelet coherence analysis showed that the scale about 10.51 km was the most suitable for exploring the trade-off between GP and WP, which was equivalent to the scale of the secondary watershed in the study area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueyan Cheng
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, Ministry of Education, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Zihan Xu
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, Ministry of Education, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Shuying Yu
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, Ministry of Education, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Jian Peng
- Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, Ministry of Education, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China.
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Impacts of Land-Use Change on the Spatio-Temporal Patterns of Terrestrial Ecosystem Carbon Storage in the Gansu Province, Northwest China. REMOTE SENSING 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/rs14133164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Land-use change is supposed to exert significant effects on the spatio-temporal patterns of ecosystem carbon storage in arid regions, while the relative size of land-use change effect under future environmental change conditions is still less quantified. In this study, we combined a land-use change dataset with a satellite-based high-resolution biomass and soil organic carbon dataset to determine the role of land-use change in affecting ecosystem carbon storage from 1980 to 2050 in the Gansu province of China, using the MCE-CA-Markov and InVEST models. In addition, to quantify the relative size of the land-use change effect in comparison with other environmental drivers, we also considered the effects of climate change, CO2 enrichment, and cropland and forest managements in the models. The results show that the ecosystem carbon storage in the Gansu province increased by 208.9 ± 99.85 Tg C from 1980 to 2020, 12.87% of which was caused by land-use change, and the rest was caused by climate change, CO2 enrichment, and ecosystem managements. The land-use change-induced carbon sequestration was mainly associated with the land-use category conversion from farmland to grassland as well as from saline land and desert to farmland, driven by the grain-for-green projects in the Loess Plateau and oasis cultivation in the Hexi Corridor. Furthermore, it was projected that ecosystem carbon storage in the Gansu province from 2020 to 2050 will change from −14.69 ± 12.28 Tg C to 57.83 ± 53.42 Tg C (from 105.62 ± 51.83 Tg C to 177.03 ± 94.1 Tg C) for the natural development (ecological protection) scenario. By contrast, the land-use change was supposed to individually increase the carbon storage by 56.46 ± 9.82 (165.84 ± 40.06 Tg C) under the natural development (ecological protection) scenario, respectively. Our results highlight the importance of ecological protection and restoration in enhancing ecosystem carbon storage for arid regions, especially under future climate change conditions.
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Bech J. Environmental geochemistry and health (EGAH) Special Issue "reclamation of polluted soils for food production and human health: part 2". ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY AND HEALTH 2022; 44:1425-1429. [PMID: 34989958 DOI: 10.1007/s10653-021-01181-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jaume Bech
- University of Barcelona (UB), Barcelona, Spain.
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Analyzing the Interrelationships among Various Ecosystem Services from the Perspective of Ecosystem Service Bundles in Shenyang, China. LAND 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/land11040515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
An understanding of the relationships among multiple ecosystem services (ES) facilitates ecosystem management and decision-making. The study of ES bundles can well explain the complex interactions between different ES in a region. Shenyang is a significant economic development and food production area in Northeast China, with a diverse range of ES types. In this study, we quantified eleven ES from Shenyang, China (two provisioning services, eight regulating services, and one cultural service). The trade-offs and synergies among ES were analyzed by Spearman’s correlation analysis. The ES bundles were identified using principal component analysis and k-means cluster analysis. Finally, the random forest method was employed to identify the driving factors affecting the ES bundles. The results showed: (1) all ES in Shenyang improved between 2000 and 2019; (2) the most obvious trade-off was found between sand fixation and water conservation; (3) the ES in the study region could be clustered into five different ES bundles which were primarily affected by land-use type; and (4) social-ecological factors largely explained and predicted the formation and distribution of ES bundles. The study provides reference information for the management and optimization of Shenyang’s ecosystems and land use regulation.
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