Survey of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in commercial pasteurized milk in Iran

Polychlorinated biphenyls in bovine milk from a typical informal electronic waste recycling and related source regions in southern India before and after the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak

For more than a decade, Chennai city in southern India has been evidenced with informal electronic waste (e-waste) recycling and open burning practices as the potential sources for polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). PCBs can bioaccumulate in livestock particularly cows grazing on the contaminated soil. The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic led to additional challenges associated with waste management practices. Hence this study aims to elucidate twenty-five PCB congeners in bovine milk from the previously reported PCB source regions in Chennai and the suburbs before and after about three years of the pandemic outbreak along electronic waste recycling (EWR), open burning dumps (OBD), and residential (RES) transects. The geomean concentration of Ʃ25PCBs in ng/g lipid weight (lw) followed a decreasing trend of EWR (13 ng/g lw) > OBD (8 ng/g lw) > RES (4 ng/g lw). Over 80 % of PCBs stemmed from EWR and OBD transects before and after the pandemic. However, a significant surge in the level of PCB-52 was observed in the OBD transect after the pandemic outbreak. Most toxic PCB congeners, PCB-126 and -169 were significant contributors to TEQs in EWR and OBD transects and can be reasoned with the burning of waste materials and mixed plastics in these transects. The highest average daily dose (ADD) exposure risk was for children from EWR and was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than other transects. Mean ADD-induced TEQ (6.6 pg TEQ/kg-bw/day) from the cows grazing around Kodungaiyur dumpsite slightly exceeded the EU guideline of 5.5 pg TEQ/kg-bw/day after the outbreak of the pandemic due to PCB-126. However, none of the samples exceeded the US FDA (1.5μg/g milk fat) recommendation limits for PCBs in milk fat. Prolonged exposure to such persistent organic pollutants interlinked with the burning of mixed waste in the open dumps can be a public health concern.

Organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in raw bovine milk from various dairy farms in Beja, Tunisia: contamination status, dietary intake, and health risk assessment for the consumers

We determined organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in raw bovine milk taken directly from the milking equipment for different animals and various farms in Béja region, which is one of the largest milk producing areas in Tunisia. All milk samples were contaminated with one or more pesticides and exhibited measurable concentrations of some PCB congeners. The residue levels are generally marked by the predominance of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) (median: 17.60 ng g^-1 fat), followed by hexachlorobenzene (HCB) (median: 14.31 ng g^-1 fat), PCBs (median: 4.71 ng g^-1 fat), and hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) (median: 0.77 ng g^-1 fat). DDT/DDE ratios across the samples vary between 0.09 to 32.24 and exhibit the hypothesis of sustaining illegal use of the banned pesticide. The historical or recent use of OCPs and possible emission sources of PCBs identified near studied farms may lead to increased levels of these contaminants in produced milk. The estimated daily intake (EDI) values were several orders of magnitude below the tolerable daily intake (TDI) fixed by FAO/WHO, though recorded concentration in some samples exceeded the maximum residue limits (MRLs) fixed by the EU, especially for OCPs. According to health risk assessments, consumption of raw milk did not pose an obvious cancer risk or other health problems for local inhabitants.

Atrazine pollution in groundwater and raw bovine milk: Water quality, bioaccumulation and human risk assessment

Atrazine herbicide can bioaccumulate over time and thus affect humans for generations to come. However, scarce studies have evaluated its bioaccumulation potential in bovine milk, a nutritional staple for children and the elderly both domestically and internationally. This study aimed to determine its concentration in groundwater and bovine milk, as well as the risks it is likely to pose for human health. Eighteen dairy farms in the Pampean plain of Argentina were analyzed. A strong correlation was found between the chemical composition and the geomorphological characteristics of the plain. In addition, increased salinity was observed in the groundwater at greater distances from the aquifer's recharge area. Atrazine was quantified in 50 % of the groundwater samples (at values ranging from 0.07 to 1.40 μg/L), and in 89 % of the bovine milk samples (from 2.51 to 20.97 μg/L). Moreover, atrazine levels in 44.4 % of the groundwater samples and 11.1 % of the bovine milk samples (n = 18) exceeded the limits internationally established as safe for human consumption. The hazard quotient (HQ) values of the compound were negligible for children and adults, both in groundwater (child = 9.7E-4, adult = 4.5E-4) and in milk (child = 1.0E-2, adult = 1.6E-3). The estimated cancer risk (CR) values need further evaluation (child = 7.8E-6, adult = 3.6E-6 in groundwater; child = 6.6E-5, adult = 1.3E-5 in milk). In both types of samples, the HQ and CR of residual atrazine were higher for children than for adults. Nevertheless, bioaccumulation factors suggest that dairy cows have a moderate capacity to incorporate atrazine from abiotic matrices. This is the first report on residual atrazine in bovine milk in Argentina. The results presented here indicate that the status of atrazine contamination in the area should continue to be monitored in order to assess its long-term impact on public health.

Exposure sources of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and health risk assessment: a systematic review in Iran

This systematic review aims to identify the sources of exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), portioning, and human health risk assessment in Iran. The literature was searched in the international databases of Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, and the national databases of SID and MagIran up to November 14, 2020. Among all 153 articles, 21 eligible papers were identified. Among them, only one article was related to drinking water, the rest was related to food and soil, and no article was found on ambient air. The corrected portion of each exposure source was determined to be 90% for food, 9% for water, and 1% for air. The total hazard quotient (HQ) was determined to be within an unsafe range, and the total excess lifetime cancer risk (ELCR) was determined to be at a high risk of oral carcinogenesis. It is suggested that a comprehensive study be conducted in a specific period for all sources of exposure in all counties of Iran. Moreover, it is recommended that the policymakers set national standards for this pollutant in near future in some sources of exposure (e.g., drinking water) which have no standards in Iran.

Spatial trends and human health risks of organochlorinated pesticides from bovine milk; a case study from a developing country, Pakistan

Bovine milk is a nutritious food commodity extensively produced and consumed in Punjab, Pakistan. This study assesses the concentration profile of organochlorine pesticides (OCP; 18 compounds) in buffaloes and cow's milk in eight major districts of Punjab, Pakistan and the potential impacts of such exposure. The total OCPs in buffaloes and cow's milk samples ranged from 3.93 to 27.63 ng mL^-1 and 14.64-77.93 ng mL^-1 respectively. The overall pattern of mean OCPs concentration in buffaloes and cows milk showed that Hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) are predominant followed by Heptachlors and Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDTs). So far, the concentration profile depicted that ∑HCHs, ∑DDTs and ∑Heptachlors did not exceed the maximum residual limits set for buffaloes and cow's milk. The spatial trends in terms of cluster analysis depicted significant variation (p > 0.05) among the districts in one cluster probably owing to local conditions. Furthermore, recently used DDTs were also identified at some of the selected districts. The risk assessment suggests that the estimated daily intake for each OCP was in accordance with the acceptable daily intake, thus single compound exposure does not pose a significant carcinogenic risk. However, the hazard ratios indicated that the values for ∑DDTs posed risk in adults consuming cow's milk whereas children may face carcinogenic risk on the consumption of both buffalo and cow's milk. The risk may be altered where mixture is considered, furthermore, regarding carcinogenic risks a continuous monitoring based ecological analysis is recommended in the future.

Serum levels of Organochlorine Pesticides and Breast Cancer Risk in Iranian Women

Breast cancer is a multifactorial disease and its etiology is linked to multiple risk factors. There are shreds of controversial evidence that exposure to organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are important in the etiology of breast cancer. The present study aimed to determine the circulating levels of OCPs in patients with breast tumors in Southeastern of Iran. This case-control study included 27 patients with malignant breast tumors (MBT), 31 patients with benign breast tumors (BBT), and 27 healthy women as a control group. Serum OCPs levels, including α-hexachlorocyclohexane (α-HCH), β-HCH, γ-HCH, 2,4-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (2,4-DDT), 4,4-DDT, 2,4-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (2,4-DDE), and 4,4-DDE, were measured using gas chromatography. Our data revealed significantly higher concentrations of 2,4-DDT in MBT and BBT groups compared with control ones (P < 0.001 for both comparisons). Patients with breast cancer suffered significantly higher accumulation levels of 4,4-DDE compared with control subjects (P = 0.04). Significant correlations were found among organochlorine compounds with each other in both patients' groups. There was a significant positive correlation between body mass index and serum levels of 2,4-DDT in BBT group (r = 0.407, P = 0.02). The present findings suggest that the serum levels of 4,4-DDE and 2,4-DDT are associated with an increase in the risk of breast cancer in Southeastern women of Iran.

Evaluation of organochlorine pesticide (OCP) residues in meat and edible organs, Iran

Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) are a more persistent and lipophilic group of insecticides. The present study aims to evaluate the residues of OCPs in meat, liver, and kidney of the cattle and sheep. A total of 54 samples were obtained from butcheries and local markets in Birjand, east of Iran. The residual contents of aldrin; dieldrin; dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane; and its metabolites (DDTs), endosulfan isomers, endrin, hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCHs), heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, chlordans, methoxychlor, and hexachlorobenzene (HCB), were analyzed in all samples. OCP residues were extracted by using the QuEChERS technique and quantified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). All of the analyzed OCPs were lower than the detection limit. The findings showed that meat and edible organs marketed in this region enjoyed a good status in terms of the residues of OCP. Monitoring of pesticide residues in meat and edible organs is necessary from the public health point of view.

Application of a health risk assessment model for cattle exposed to pesticides in contaminated drinking waters: A study case from the Pampas region, Argentina

Using the USEPA methodology we estimated the probabilistic chronic risks for calves and adult cows due to pesticide exposure through oral intake of contaminated surface and ground waters in Tres Arroyos County (Argentina). Because published data on pesticide toxicity endpoints for cows are scarce, we used threshold levels based on interspecies extrapolation methods. The studied waters showed acceptable quality for cattle production since none of the pesticides were present at high-enough concentrations to potentially affect cow health. Moreover, ground waters had better quality than surface waters, with dieldrin and deltamethrin being the pesticides associated with the highest risk values in the former and the latter water compartments, respectively. Our study presents a novel use of the USEPA risk methodology proving it is useful for water quality evaluation in terms of pesticide toxicity for cattle production. This approach represents an alternative tool for water quality management in the absence of specific cattle pesticide regulatory limits.

Effect of food processing on degradation of hexachlorocyclohexane and its isomers in milk

AIM

To study the effect of different food processing techniques on the degradation of organochlorine compounds (α, β, ɣ and δ hexachlorocyclohexane isomers (HCH)) residues in both natural and fortified samples of milk.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Raw milk samples are collected from the local areas of Hyderabad, India. Naturally and fortified milk samples (HCH) were subjected to various food processing techniques, pasteurization (63ºC for ½ h), sterilization (121ºC for 15 min) and boiling for 5 min and analyzed by gas chromatography with electron capture detector using quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe method for multiresidue analysis of pesticides in milk with slight modification.

RESULTS

The final mean residual concentration of pesticide in milk after heat processing and percentage of degradation were calculated with respective treatments.

CONCLUSION

Heat treatments are highly effective on reduction of mean residual concentration of HCH in milk. In which Sterilization and boiling proved to be more effective in degradation of HCH isomers.

Environmental and population studies concerning exposure to pesticides in iran: a comprehensive review

Pesticides are widely used in Iranian agriculture and this has made a major toxicological concern among health professionals. The objective of this study is to explore national data about pesticides toxicity. All relevant databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus in a time period of 1960 to 2012 were searched for the keywords “Pesticides, Iran, Environment, and Population studies”. A total of 57 studies were found relevant and then included into study. Almost all non-experimental studies carried out in Iran were classified into two main categories of residue assessment in different samples and toxic effects on human. Depending on the dose and duration of exposure, toxic effects of pesticides have been studied in two classifications including acute toxicity or acute poisoning and chronic toxicity. High extent of pesticides have been used during the past decade in Iran while no enough proper studies were done to explore their possible toxic effects in the environment and the people.

Spatial gradients of OCPs in European butter--integrating environmental and exposure information

The Stockholm Convention and the Global Monitoring Plan encourage the production of monitoring data to effectively evaluate the presence of the persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in all regions, in order to identify changes in levels over time, as well as to provide information on their regional and global environmental transport. Here, we report the first step of two to investigate whether butter is a feasible matrix to screen with the purpose to reflect regional ambient atmospheric air levels of POPs. The first step described here is to generate monitoring data; the second is to investigate the relationship between the two matrixes, i.e., POP concentrations in air and butter, which will be reported in another article published in this journal. Here, the 27 organochlorine pesticides listed under the Stockholm Convention have been analyzed in 75 butter samples from Europe. The general conclusions were as follows: Total organochlorine pesticide concentration is lower in butter from northern and central Europe. The spatial gradient of 1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-di(4-chlorophenyl)ethane and hexachlorocyclohexane is increasing in the eastern region of Europe (Romania, Bulgaria, and Ukraine), dieldrin towards France, and endosulfan levels were elevated on the Azores Island in the Atlantic Ocean. One butter sample from Romania exceeded the European Maximum Residue Limit value for lindane, but the other butter pesticide levels were all below the limit values. The dataset reported here can be used for the calibration of the air-grass-dairy products model, which would support the feasibility to use butter as biomonitor for measuring POP levels in ambient air.

Organochlorine compounds in bovine milk from the state of Mato Grosso do Sul-Brazil

Organochlorines are highly hydrophobic, synthetic organic pollutants that accumulate in the environment and in food webs. The primary route of human exposure to organochlorines is through food-mainly fat-rich food of animal origin such as meat, fish, and dairy products. Here we determined the presence and concentration of organochlorine residues in pasteurized milk from Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, to monitor consumer exposure to these contaminants. Organochlorine pesticides in milk samples were analyzed using solid phase extraction in octadecyl silica-prepacked columns and identified by gas chromatography using an electron capture detector. Of the 100 composite samples analyzed, more than 90% contained residues of organochlorine pesticides: aldrin was present in 44% of the samples, followed by ∑DDT (36%), mirex (34%), endosulfan (32%), chlordane (17%), dicofol (14%), heptachlor (11%) and dieldrin (11%). Compared to the values established by law, the concentration of the compounds in some samples was above the reference values. Given the importance that milk and its products have in the human diet, it is essential to know whether the levels of pesticide residues are kept well below the recommended levels to minimize the risk to human health.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) residues in milk from an agroindustrial zone of Tuxpan, Veracruz, Mexico

The coasts of the Gulf of Mexico are zones exposed to the exploration and exploitation of petroleum sources, and the products generated in agricultural zones may become contaminated by persistent organic pollutants (POPs). The objective of the present study was to evaluate the presence of polychlorinated biphenyl compounds (PCBs) in milk from dairy production units near sources of environmental pollutants. It was confirmed that the seven congeners of nondioxin-like PCBs (NDL-PCBs) are present in milk where compounds PCB101, PCB118, PCB153 and PCB180 appear in 100% of the samples analyzed, the rank of concentration for the sum of the seven congeners fluctuating between 2.6 and 26 ng g(-1) with a median of 6 ng g(-1). None of the samples surpassed the provisional value established by the EU of 40 ng g(-1) of milk fat for the sum of the seven congeners, indicator that was not affected by the season of the year (p<0.05), whose median of 8.6 ng g(-1) and 6.3 ng g(-1) for rain and drought respectively. The concentrations of NDL-PCBs found in milk do not represent a problem for human health; however, they alert the existence of spontaneously generated, uncontrolled sources that may represent a potential danger for human and animal health.

Topsoil dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and polychlorinated biphenyl concentrations and sources along an urban-rural gradient in the Yellow River Delta

The Yellow River Delta (YRD) is a typical agricultural and petrochemical industrial area of China. To assess the current status of soil dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) residues, topsoil samples (0-15 cm) (n = 82) were collected in Bincheng District, at the geographic center of the YRD. The total concentrations of six DDT homologues were within 3.3-3819 microg/kg, with a mean concentration of 191 microg/kg, showing significant increase along urban-rural gradient. Soil concentrations of seven indicator PCBs in the area ranged from non-detectable to 87.0 microg/kg, dominated by heavily chlorinated PCBs (PCB-101 and -118). Soil PCBs concentrations were significantly greater in urban than suburban and rural areas. Principal component and multiple linear regression analysis suggest that 86.4% of soil DDTs originate from past DDT usage, and 13.6% originate from dicofol application. Soil PCBs most likely originate from the petrochemical industry (77.1%), municipal solid waste disposal (16.5%), local commercial PCB homologues usage (5.2%), and long-range atmospheric deposition (1.2%). In general, soil DDTs pollution was classified as low level, and mean PCBs concentrations were below the severe contamination classification range. Because PCB-118 is a dioxin-like congener, monitoring and remediation is advised to assess and reduce negative environmental and human health effects from soil DDTs and dioxin-like congeners in the study area.