Wild boar (Sus scrofa) as a bioindicator of organochlorine compound contamination in terrestrial ecosystems of West Pomerania Province, NW Poland

Brominated flame retardants (PBDEs and HBCDs) and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in wild boars (Sus scrofa) from Central Italy

Twenty-six samples of wild boar liver and muscle from the Central Apennine Mountain (Italy) were analysed for 19 perfluoro-alkyl substances (PFASs), 10 polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs) and 3 hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs). All samples were analysed by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for PBDEs and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for PFASs and HBCDs, using an in-house developed analytical procedure. The brominated flame retardants (BFR) levels in livers were negligible: Σ₁₀PBDEs reached a maximum value of 0.079 μg/kg, whereas HBCDs were not quantified in almost all of the samples analysed. BFR concentrations in muscles were higher, but not significantly therefore, for Σ₁₀PBDEs lower bound, a mean value of 0.045 μg/kg (0.005-0.155 μg/kg range) was measured, while α-HBCD was quantified with a maximum of 0.084 μg/kg in 9 of the samples. Only two muscles contained all 3 HBCD isomers at concentrations of approximately 0.200 μg/kg. Σ₁₉PFAS in the 26 wild boar livers was in the range 31.9-228 μg/kg, with a mean value of 87.7 μg/kg, reaching levels significantly higher than in muscles, which exhibited a mean concentration of 3.08 μg/kg (0.59-9.12 μg/kg range). Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) was the most prevalent compound in all liver samples, accounting for more than half of the total PFASs contamination, confirming that the liver is the primary target organ for PFOS exposure Perfluorotridecanoic acid (PFTrDA), which accounts for 25-30-% of the total contamination, was the most abundant compound in the muscle, followed by PFOS. The estimated daily intake (EDIs) of BFRs remained below the estimated chronic human daily dietary intake (D_r,h) defined from European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Furthermore, the exposure to PFASs in muscle was 7.7 times lower than the EFSA's tolerable daily intake (TDI). In contrast, exposure due to liver consumption was significant: the EDI exceeded the EFSA's 2020 TDI by approximately 7 times.

Exposure of wild boars (Sus scrofa L) to neonicotinoid insecticides

The aim was to determine, for the first time, concentrations of 7 neonicotinoids (NEOs) and 5 metabolites in Sus scrofa from hunting areas in north-eastern Poland and assess the risk to consumers eating boar meat. 42 wild boar muscle samples were collected over a one-year period. The concentrations of 12 NEOs were determined by a fully validated LC-ESI-MS/MS protocol based on ultrasonic, freezing and cleanup EMR-lipid sample preparation. NEOs were present in over 83% of samples, 17% had no residue, and one pesticide was present in 36% of samples. Most often found were: clothianidin (35%), acetamiprid and imidacloprid (33%), thiacloprid (31%), thiamethoxam (9%), and the average concentrations were (ng g^-1): thiacloprid 6.2 > imidacloprid 5.7 > acetamiprid 4.6 > clothianidin 2.2 > thiacloprid 1.6 > thiamethoxam 1.0. Multi-residue samples were found, one with 7 and one with 5 NEOs. Two NEOs were present in 24%; 3 in 39% and 4 in 10% of samples. In the metabolic degradation of acetamiprid, imidacloprid and thiacloprid, it was observed that metabolites account for no more than 8.5% of the measured parent substance. Acetamiprid-n-desmethyl was noted most often (21%). Due to the detection of NEOs in a large proportion of samples, chronic and acute risk assessment were performed. The estimated chronic and acute risk for consumers from NEOs neonicotinoids through the consumption of wild boar was very low and amounted to respectively 0.02% of ADI and 0.86% of ARfD.

Optimization of a new selective pressurized liquid extraction methodology for determining organic pollutants in wild boar livers

In this study, a new selective pressurised liquid extraction (SPLE) methodology was optimised for determining about 70 organic pollutants (OPs) including organochlorine (OCPs), organophosphate (OPPs) and pyrethroid (PYRs) pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybromodiphenyl ethers (PBDEs), as well as, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in wild boar liver samples considering the temperature, pressure and time of contact between the solvent and the matrix as influential variables. Clean-up of extracts was performed by solid-phase extraction (SPE) using EZ-POP cartridges. Detection of OPs was carried out by gas chromatography (GC) coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (QqQ-MS/MS). This new approach offers:•

A new non-time consuming SPLE methodology for determining about 70 OPs in wild boar.

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Recoveries achieved ranged between 74 to 119 % with RSD less than 20 %.

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Detection and quantification limits in the low to mid pg/g range.

Impact of broad-spectrum pesticides used in the agricultural and forestry sector on the pesticide profile in wild boar, roe deer and deer and risk assessment for venison consumers

The present work is the first extensive study of large-scale pesticides research in wild animals. The investigation covered three game species: wild boar (n = 42), roe deer (n = 79) and deer (n = 15) collected from north-eastern Poland. To characterize the 480 pesticides in muscle samples, LC-GC-MS/MS techniques were used. A total of 28 compounds were detected: 5 neonicotinoids, 6 organochlorine and 5 other insecticides, 9 fungicides and 4 herbicides, in the range of 0.1-85.3 ng g^-1. Over four hundred detections were done. The highest mean concentrations were as follows: anthraquinone (85.3 ng g^-1) > DDT-p,p' (4.6 ng g^-1) > imidacloprid (4.3 ng g^-1) > permethrin (3.6 ng g^-1) > thiacloprid (2.8 ng g^-1). DDT and metabolites were the most frequently detected, followed by acetamiprid, tebuconazole, clothianidin and imidacloprid. Overall, 92% samples with residues were recorded, including 100% of wild boar, 88% of roe deer and 86% of deer. More than one pesticide (up to 9) was found in over 73% of the tested samples. The estimated chronic and acute risk to consumers of venison were very low (below 1% ADI and ARfD). This interdisciplinary study may be helpful for estimating ecological risk to wild animals and risk to consumers of wild animal products, and also as a source of biomonitoring data.

Wild boar (Sus scrofa) as bioindicator for environmental exposure to organic pollutants

Organic pollutants (OPs) are widely distributed around the globe, their presence has become an issue of great concern in the last years due to their potential health effects. Wildlife biomonitoring of OPs has been nowadays a common approach to assess chemical exposure in wildlife and humans. In a sample of 60 wild boars (Sus scrofa) from NW Spain, we evaluated the suitability of using liver and hair samples for the assessment of exposure and bioaccumulation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) including dioxin and non-dioxin like PCBs (DLPCBs and NDLPCBs), organochlorine and organophosphate pesticides (OCPs and OPPs, respectively), polybromodiphenyl ethers (PBDEs), pyrethroids (PYRs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Selective pressurized liquid extraction (SPLE) and liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) methodologies were used to determine the target OPs in liver and hair samples. Clean-up of extracts was performed by solid-phase extraction (SPE) using EZ-POP cartridges and detection by gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (GC-QqQ-MS/MS). We found a distribution pattern of ΣPAHs > ΣOCPs > ΣPYRs > ΣNDLPCBs > ΣOPPs > ΣDLPCBs > ΣPBDEs in liver and of ΣPAHs > ΣOCPs > ΣNDLPCBs > ΣPYRs > ΣOPPs > ΣDLPCBs > ΣPBDEs in hair. Significant correlations (p < 0.050) between the socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age and place) and OP concentrations of OCPs, PBDEs, PYRs, OPPs and PAHs were detected. Moderate correlation was found between HCB, PCB28, PCB157 and chlorpyrifos contents in both hair and liver samples. On the basis of these results, our data shows the correlation and complementary information given by both biological samples.

Levels of Metals and Organochlorine Pesticides in Kidney, Liver, and Muscle Tissues of Wild Boars (Sus scrofa) from Hatay Province, Eastern Mediterranean Region, Turkey

Increases in the levels of environmental contaminants are reflected in wild animals, which are early indicators of pollution. Hatay is an ecologically important region with a high intensity of industrial and agricultural activities. This study aimed to investigate the contamination levels of metals and organochlorine pesticides associated with environmental pollution in tissues of wild boars from Turkey. The highest mean levels (mg kg^-1) of metals were 0.05 for As, 0.51 for Cd, 6.30 for Cu, 0.07 for Hg, 0.54 for Ni, and 0.57 for Pb in kidney tissues and 0.22 for Cr, 353.38 for Fe, 2.86 for Mn, and 46.76 for Zn in liver tissues. The Cd and Pb levels exceeded the maximum residue limits (MRLs) in some tissues. Among the studied pesticides, only p,p'-DDE contamination was quantified, and the mean levels were 3.6, 0.1, and 0.5 µg kg^-1 in liver, kidney, and muscle tissues respectively. In conclusion, Hatay Province requires monitoring in terms of environmentally important contaminants, mainly Cd, Pb, and DDT isomers.

Assessment of Dietary Exposure and Risk of DDT Concerning Freshwater Fish Aquaculture

Pesticides may accumulate in freshwater fish due to contamination from the environment. This paper reports on a risk assessment of DDT and DDT metabolites in carp. A survey was conducted about dietary habits among fish consumers. Cluster analysis was accomplished based on the frequency and amount of carp consumption. Classical and carcinogenic risk assessments were performed for the clusters. While DDT contamination was present, it was not found to be risky concerning the complete diet of the clusters (carcinogenic risk was also negligible), moreover, carp consumption did not contribute significantly to the risk level even in the case of the extreme consumers.

PCB residues in the tissues of sea ducks wintering on the south coast of the Baltic Sea, Poland

The Baltic Sea is known to be severely polluted by a range of chemicals, one group of which being PCBs. Although the use and production of PCBs were limited or banned in many countries in the 1970s, their presence is still observed in the environment. The aim of this study was to evaluate PCBs concentration in four species of diving sea ducks, interspecies and tissues differences, and in the case of game species, comparison of the obtained results with maximal residue levels (MRLs) and tolerable weekly intake (TWI). The level of Σi-PCBs was noted in most examined samples (liver, muscle, fat tissue) at levels ranging between < LoD and 2315.45 ng/g lw. The dominant congener was PCB 153, followed by PCB 180 and 138. The mean dl-PCB-TEQ value in the muscles of the tested tufted ducks and common pochards was 0.31 and 0.71 pg-TEQ/g lw, respectively, which is 8-25 and 18-57% of the TEQ maximum limit (ML) value for farm animal muscles. The average decrease in i-ΣPCB concentration in the fat tissue of ducks wintering in the Baltic Sea southern coast was found to be 2.9-3.3%/year. The analysis of PCB residues indicates that the common pochard and tufted duck are not suitable for consumption due to high Σi-PCB concentrations. However, the regular consumption of muscle and liver of game birds does not result in an unacceptable intake of dl-PCBs, i.e., above the TWI value.

Suitability of Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) as a Bioindicator for Environmental Pollution with Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA) and Perfluorooctanesulfonic Acid (PFOS)

Wildlife species, such as roe deer, moose, brown hare, wild boar, etc., are known to accumulate persistent environmental contaminants and thus are useful as bioindicators for environmental pollution. Wild boars become exposed to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) from flora, fauna, water, and soil. The main exposure pathway to PFOA and PFOS is assumed to be the oral intake. From studies in domestic pigs (belonging to the same species Sus scrofa), it has been established that the oral exposure results in the liver accumulation of PFOA and PFOS. Thus, we posit that wild boars can be quantitatively used as suitable bioindicators for the presence of these substances in the environment. After the environmental pollution case in the Hessian region Sauerland in 2006, monitoring programs of individual Federal States from 2007 to 2013 showed that almost all wild boar liver samples contained PFOA and PFOS. In 2014, the analyses of PFOA and PFOS in liver of wild boars hunted in the south, north, and west of Germany showed liver concentrations at the same level among regions. Overall, an average ratio of PFOS:PFOA concentration in liver of 20.5:1 was found. To estimate the actual ratio of PFOS:PFOA in the wild boars' dietary exposure, we performed toxicokinetic modeling. According to the model, the PFOS exposure is only 2.2 times that of PFOA (because PFOS has slower elimination kinetics and higher affinity for the liver than PFOA). Overall, the determination of PFOA and PFOS in liver of wild boars indicates that both substances are ubiquitously distributed in the environment. At the same time, higher exposures were found for animals living in closer proximity to dense human populations.

Differential expression of hepatic genes with embryonic exposure to an environmentally relevant PCB mixture in Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica)

The upper Hudson River was contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) Aroclor mixtures from the 1940s until the late 1970s. Several well-established biomarkers, such as induction of hepatic cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, were used to measure exposure to PCBs and similar contaminants in birds. In the present study, Japanese quail eggs were injected with a PCB mixture based upon a congener profile found in spotted sandpiper eggs at the upper Hudson River and subsequently, RNA was extracted from hatchling liver tissue for hybridization to a customized chicken cDNA microarray. Nominal concentrations of the mixture used for microarray hybridization were 0, 6, 12, or 49 μg/g egg. Hepatic gene expression profiles were analyzed using cluster and pathway analyses. Results showed potentially useful biomarkers of both exposure and effect attributed to PCB mixture. Biorag and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis® analyses revealed differentially expressed genes including those involved in glycolysis, xenobiotic metabolism, replication, protein degradation, and tumor regulation. These genes included cytochrome P450 1A5 (CYP1A5), cytochrome b5 (CYB5), NADH-cytochrome b5 reductase, glutathione S-transferase (GSTA), fructose bisphosphate aldolase (ALDOB), glycogen phosphorylase, carbonic anhydrase, and DNA topoisomerase II. CYP1A5, CYB5, GSTA, and ALDOB were chosen for quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction confirmation, as these genes exhibited a clear dose response on the array. Data demonstrated that an initial transcriptional profile associated with an environmentally relevant PCB mixture in Japanese quail occurred.

A Survey of Pesticide Accumulation in a Specialist Feeder, the Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus)

To maintain profitability in Australia's agricultural and urban landscapes pesticides are used throughout the range of koala habitats. The koala is a specialist feeder, reliant on metabolic enzyme capacities to utilise a toxic diet of eucalypt leaves and is potentially prone to adverse effects when xenobiotic interactions between dietary and anthropogenic xenobiotics occur. The aim of this study was to investigate accumulation of frequently used pesticides in wild koalas in 4 areas of New South Wales and Queensland. Liver samples of 57 deceased koalas were collected from care facilities and analysed using a modified QuEChERS extraction method followed by GCMSMS, HRLCMS and LCMSMS. No accumulation of any of the 166 investigated pesticides was found. Data indicate hepatic accumulation of pesticides in this species is uncommon even with close interactions with intensive land use. Despite the lack of hepatic bioaccumulation, this study cannot exclude a direct effect on hepatocellular metabolic pathways.