Determination of acidic non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in aquatic samples by liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry combined with carbon nanotubes-based solid-phase extraction

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in the environment: Updates on pretreatment and determination methods

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are widely used in human and animal health care to reduce persistent inflammation, pain and fever because of their anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic effects. However, the improper discharge and disposal make it becomes a major contaminant in the environment, which poses a big threat to the ecosystem. For this reason, accurate, sensitive, effective, green, and economic techniques are urgently required and have been rapidly developed in recent years. This review summarizes the advancement of sample preparation technologies for NSAIDs involving solid-phase extraction, solid-phase microextraction, liquid-phase microextraction, QuEChERS, and matrix solid-phase dispersion. Meanwhile, we overview and compare analytical technologies for NSAIDs, including liquid chromatography-based methods, gas chromatography-based methods, capillary electrophoresis, and sensors, particularly the development of liquid chromatography-based methods. Furthermore, we focus on their progress and conduct a comparison between their advantages and disadvantages.

Efficient determination of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs by micellar electrokinetic chromatography in wastewater

Recently, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have been increasingly used in humans and animals. Despite being effective against a wide variety of diseases, they pose a threat to aquatic environments. In the current work, a highly efficient, selective, and sensitive micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) method was developed for the determination of five NSAIDs in environmental water samples. The optimal separation BGE was 15 mM borate buffer (pH 9), 90 mM SDS, and 10% methanol at a separation voltage of 15 kV and a hydrodynamic injection of 10 mbar for 5 s. The results presented in this study provide a higher number of theoretical plates N > 780 000 with excellent RSDs of 0.1-1.5% and great sensitivity (3-15 μg L^-1) for NSAIDs. To validate this method, the solid phase extraction method was optimized using two different cartridges (C18 and Oasis HLB); the results showed excellent recoveries (73-111.6%) for all the analytes in wastewater samples.

Preparation of a single and reusable biopolymer-based film for the extraction and preconcentration of anti-inflammatory drugs from environmental water samples

One of the main goals of green chemistry is to reduce the use of toxic materials and the generation of hazardous waste, both during method development and in the synthesis of the materials used. Thus, a biodegradable, single and reusable material composed of agarose and multi-walled carbon nanotubes was proposed. The film preparation was carefully optimized in order to obtain a one-piece sorbent, with high extraction efficiency and the possibility of reuse. The film was tested in the simultaneous extraction and preconcentration of three non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (ketorolac, ketoprofen and piroxicam) from environmental water samples. The optimal extraction parameters were as follows: isopropyl alcohol as the activation solvent, a sample pH value of 3.0, extraction time of 30 min, 2.00 mL of acetonitrile as the eluent, an elution time of 5 minutes, and a sample volume of 250.00 mL. Under these conditions, the film was reusable 50 times without losing its extraction capacity significantly. HPLC with a photodiode array detector was used for the separation and determination. The method presented a linear range between 0.10 and 1.2 μg L^-1, good sensitivity with limits of detection between 0.0075 and 0.0089 μg L^-1, and quantification between 0.025 and 0.030 μg L^-1. In addition, low RSD values (0.46-3.13%) were obtained demonstrating satisfactory precision. Stream water samples were analyzed, and recoveries between 82.0 and 109.0% were obtained.

Magnetic Solid-Phase Extraction Based on Magnetite-Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes of Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatories from Water Followed by LC-ESI-MS/MS

An analytical method based on liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry detection (LC-ESI-MS/MS) has been developed for the determination of pharmaceutical compounds in water samples. Five non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) namely Naproxen, Ketoprofen, Piroxicam, Diflunisal and Celecoxib were investigated. Magnetic solid phase extraction (MSPE) was used for sample pre concentration of water samples and magnetic carbon nanotubes (Fe3O4-MWCNTs) were considered as solid phase extraction sorbent. Important parameters influencing the extraction efficiency such as nature and volume of eluent, sample pH and adsorbent mass were optimized. The developed MSPE method involved 75 mg of Fe3O4-MWCNTs sorbent, 5 mL of water sample at pH = 4 and 5 mL of 10% ammonia in methanol in the elution step. Under the optimized extraction conditions, linearity, detection and quantification limits and reproducibility were evaluated. The proposed method was successfully applied to the analysis of NSAIDs in surface waters, and mean recoveries of all the NSAIDs were above 90% with relative standard deviations < 17%. The detection and quantification limits were comprised between 0.05-3.6 ng.mL-1 and 0.2-11.9 ng.mL-1, respectively.

A review on the adsorption mechanism of different organic contaminants by covalent organic framework (COF) from the aquatic environment

Recently, covalent organic frameworks (COFs) have gained significant attention as a promising material for the elimination of various organic pollutants due to their distinctive characteristics such as high surface area, adjustable porosity, high removal efficiency, and recyclability. The efficiency and selectivity of COFs depend on the decorated functional group and the pore size of the chemical structure. Hence, this review highlights the adsorption removal mechanism of different organic contaminants such as (pharmaceutical and personal care products, pesticides, dyes, and industrial by-products) by COFs from an aqueous solution. Spectroscopic techniques and theoretical calculation methods are introduced to understand the mechanism of the adsorption process. Also, a comparison between the performance of COFs and other adsorbents was discussed. Furthermore, future research directions and challenges encountered in the removal of organic contaminants by COFs are discussed.

Long-term exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of ibuprofen and aluminum alters oxidative stress status on Danio rerio

Despite the ubiquitous presence of multiple pollutants in aqueous environments have been extensively demonstrated, the ecological impact of chemical cocktails has not been studied in depth. In recent years, environmental studies have mainly focused on the risk assessment of individual chemical substances neglecting the effects of complex mixtures even though it has been demonstrated that combined effects exerted by pollutants might represent a greater hazard to the biocenosis. The current study evaluates the effects on the oxidative stress status induced by individual forms and binary mixtures of ibuprofen (IBU) and aluminum (Al) on brain, gills, liver and gut tissues of Danio rerio after long-term exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations (0.1-11 μg L^-1 and 0.05 mg L^-1- 6 mg L^-1, respectively). Lipid peroxidation (LPO), Protein carbonyl content (PCC) and activity of Superoxide Dismutase (SOD), Catalase (CAT), and Glutathione Peroxidase (GPX) were evaluated. Moreover, concentrations of both toxicants and the metabolite 2-OH-IBU were quantified on test water and tissues. Results show that ibuprofen (IBU) and aluminum (Al) singly promote the production of radical species and alters the oxidative stress status in all evaluated tissues of zebrafish, nevertheless, higher effects were elicited by mixtures as different interactions take place.

Ibuprofen at environmentally relevant concentrations alters embryonic development, induces teratogenesis and oxidative stress in Cyprinus carpio

Ibuprofen (IBU) is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAIDs) that is used in various conditions. The prescriptions and the global consumption of this drug are very high and its annual production oscillates in millions of tons, this generates that the IBU is present in many waterbodies because it is discharged through the municipal, hospital and industrial effluents. For the above, the purpose of this work was to determine if IBU at environmentally relevant concentrations was capable of inducing alterations to embryonic development, teratogenic effects and oxidative stress in oocytes and embryos of Cyprinus carpio. Oocytes of common carp were exposed to IBU concentrations between 1.5 and 11.5 μg L^-1 (environmentally relevant). LC₅₀ and EC₅₀ of malformations were determined to calculate the teratogenic index (TI). Also, main alterations to embryonic development and teratogenic effects were evaluated. Oxidative stress was evaluated by determining biomarkers of cellular oxidation and antioxidation using the same concentrations at 72 and 96 hpf in embryos of Cyprinus carpio. The results showed a LC₅₀ of 4.17 μg L^-1, EC₅₀ of 1.39 μg L^-1 and TI of 3.0. The main embryonic development disorders and teratogenic effects were delayed hatching, hypopigmentation, pericardial edema, yolk deformation, and developmental delay. Biomarkers of cellular oxidation and antioxidants were increased with respect to the control in a concentration-dependent manner. The results of the study allow us to conclude that IBU at environmentally relevant concentrations is capable of inducing embryotoxicity and teratogenicity in a fish of commercial interest like Cyprinus carpio.

An investigation of the polymorphism of a potent nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug flunixin

Flunixin, a potent nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug widely used in veterinary medicine, was found to exist in at least two crystal forms, in contrast to clonixin which exists in four solvent-free forms and multiple solvates.

Porphyrin-functionalized graphene oxide sheets: An efficient nanomaterial for micro solid phase extraction of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs from urine samples

In this work, porphyrin-functionalized graphene oxide nanosheets (GO@meso-tetrakis(4-hydroxyphenyl)porphyrin) were synthesized and employed as the sorbent. Porphyrins owing to their unique structures and tunable terminal functional groups are expected to be promising media for extraction of the desired analytes. Also, GO with a high specific surface area has exhibited good potential for the extraction purposes. Inspired by these intriguing properties, the combination of GO and porphyrin can benefit both of these amazing features. The synthesized sorbent was utilized for micro solid phase extraction of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs followed by HPLC-UV. Optimization of the experimental factors including sorbent amount, sample pH, sample and eluent flowrates, eluent volume, and the number of desorption cycles were performed with the aid of central composite design. Under the optimal conditions, the calibration curves were linear within the range of 2.0-600 ng mL^-1 and limits of detection were found between 0.5-2.0 ng mL^-1. The preconcentration factors and absolute recoveries were obtained in the range of 4.80-9.79 and 29%-59%, respectively. The matrix effect for the urine samples varied between 81.9%-91.6% at two concentrations of 50 and 300 ng mL^-1, respectively. Intra- and inter-day RSD% (n = 3) of the spiked urine samples at three level concentrations of 25, 100, and 300 ng mL^-1 were less than 10%. The relative recoveries of the urine samples were calculated in the range of 85.2-98.6%. Eventually, the method exhibits proper sensitivity, excellent repeatability, high reusability, and acceptable precision and accuracy.

A biocompatible high surface area ZnO-based molecularly imprinted polymer for the determination of meloxicam in water media and plasma

Ultrasound-assisted solid-phase microextraction (SPME) by a functionalized high surface area ZnO nanoparticle (NP)-based molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) followed by UV-Vis spectrophotometry was described as a selective, economic and rapid technique which was established for the extraction and preconcentration of meloxicam (MEL) in water media and plasma.

Occurrence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers, perfluorinated compounds, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in freshwater mussels from Latvia

The occurrence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), perfluorinated compounds (PFC), and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) in Latvian freshwater ecosystems was evaluated by using filter-feeding mussels as bioindicators. Twenty four samples of mussels were collected from freshwater bodies throughout the territory of Latvia during the summer of 2017. PBDE contamination was ubiquitous, reaching the highest total concentration of 193.2 pg g^-1 w.w. BDE-209 was the most abundant compound, followed by penta-BDE components BDE-49, -100, -99, -153, -154, and -47 in decreasing order. The levels of PFCs in Latvian mussels were generally lower than those reported from other regions. Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) was more common in mussels than perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS). Ibuprofen was the only NSAID detected in mussels during this study (detection frequency 50%). The observed concentrations of this compound varied between 0.52 and 109 ng g^-1 w.w., being noticeably higher than reported by other authors. Overall, the results indicate that among the three analysed groups of contaminants, ibuprofen is present in Latvian freshwater environment at relatively high levels and further monitoring should be carried out.

Multi-residue enantiomeric analysis of 18 chiral pesticides in water, soil and river sediment using magnetic solid-phase extraction based on amino modified multiwalled carbon nanotubes and chiral liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry

This manuscript describes, for the first time, the multi-residue analysis of 18 chiral pesticides at enantiomeric levels in both environmental liquid (river water, influent and effluent wastewater) and solid matrices (agricultural soil, forestal soil and river sediment) based on magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) and chiral liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Magnetic amino modified multiwalled carbon nanotubes (m-MWCNTs-NH₂) were prepared and firstly applied to adsorb pesticides from complex matrices. Response surface methodology (RSM) was applied to assist the multivariable optimization. The simultaneous enantioseparation of the chiral pesticides was performed on a Chiralpak IG column. Under the optimum conditions, the mean recoveries for pesticides enantiomers from the water matrices ranged from 81.1 to 106.3% with intra-day RSD of 2.1-11.9% and inter-day RSD of 2.6-12.7%; the mean recoveries for all enantiomers from the solid matrices ranged from 80.3 to 105.9% with intra-day RSD of 2.3-10.9% and inter-day RSD of 4.0-13.4%. Good linearity was achieved for all enantiomers with determination coefficients (r²) greater than 0.9912. Method quantification limits were below 2.04ng L^-1 in liquid matrices and below 0.50ng g^-1 in solid matrices. The developed method offered some advantages, such as simple operation, rapidity and high concentration factor. Therefore, it is suitable for monitoring the enantiomeric compositions of chiral pesticides in different environmental matrices.

Polypyrrole-modified magnetic multi-walled carbon nanotube-based magnetic solid-phase extraction combined with dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction followed by UHPLC-MS/MS for the analysis of sulfonamides in environmental water samples

Polypyrrole modified magnetic multi-walled carbon nanotubes were prepared and applied as an efficient adsorbent for magnetic solid-phase extraction.