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Lev‐Yadun S. The phenomenon of red and yellow autumn leaves: Hypotheses, agreements and disagreements. J Evol Biol 2022; 35:1245-1282. [PMID: 35975328 PMCID: PMC9804425 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Yellow and red autumn leaves are typical of many temperate/boreal woody plants. Since the 19th century, it has been either considered the non-functional outcome of chlorophyll degradation that unmasks the pre-existing yellow and red pigments or that the de novo synthesis of red anthocyanins in autumn leaves indicated that it should have a physiological function, although it was commonly ignored. Defending free amino acids and various other resources released especially following the breakdown of the photosynthetic system, and mobilizing them for storage in other organs before leaf fall, is the cornerstone of both the physiological and anti-herbivory hypotheses about the functions of yellow and red autumn leaf colouration. The complicated phenomenon of conspicuous autumn leaf colouration has received significant attention since the year 2000, especially because ecologists started paying attention to its anti-herbivory potential. The obvious imperfection of the hypotheses put forth in several papers stimulated many other scientists. Hot debates among physiologists, among ecologists, and between physiologists and ecologists have been common since the year 2000, first because the various functions of yellow and red autumn leaf colouration are non-exclusive, and second because many scientists were trained to focus on a single subject. Here, I will review the debates, especially between the photoprotective and the anti-herbivory hypotheses, and describe both the progress in their understanding and the required progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev‐Yadun
- Department of Biology & Environment, Faculty of Natural SciencesUniversity of HaifaTivonIsrael
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Lev-Yadun S. Avoiding rather than resisting herbivore attacks is often the first line of plant defence. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
A common idea is that resisting or blocking herbivore attacks by structural, chemical and molecular means after they have commenced is the first line of plant defence. However, these are all secondary defences, operating only when all the various methods of avoiding attack have failed. The real first line of plant defence from herbivory and herbivore-transmitted pathogens is avoiding such attacks altogether. Several visual, chemical and ‘statistical’ methods (and commonly their combined effects) have been proposed to allow avoidance of herbivore attacks. The visual types are camouflage, masquerade, aposematic coloration of toxic or physically defended plants (including Müllerian/Batesian mimicry), undermining herbivorous insect camouflage, delayed greening, dazzle and trickery coloration, heterophylly that undermines host identification, leaf movements, and signalling that colourful autumn leaves are soon to be shed. The mimicry types include: herbivore damage, insects and other animals, fungal infestation, dead/dry leaves or branches, animal droppings, and stones and soil. Olfactory-based tactics include odour aposematism by poisonous plants, various repelling volatiles, mimicry of faeces and carrion odours, and mimicry of aphid alarm pheromones. The ‘statistical’ methods are mast fruiting, flowering only once in many years and being rare. In addition to the theoretical aspects, understanding these mechanisms may have considerable potential for agricultural or forestry applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev-Yadun
- Department of Biology & Environment, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa – Oranim, Tivon 36006, Israel
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Protective Role of Leaf Variegation in Pittosporum tobira under Low Temperature: Insights into the Physio-Biochemical and Molecular Mechanisms. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20194857. [PMID: 31574927 PMCID: PMC6801658 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20194857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 09/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Leaf variegation has been demonstrated to have adaptive functions such as cold tolerance. Pittosporum tobira is an ornamental plant with natural leaf variegated cultivars grown in temperate regions. Herein, we investigated the role of leaf variegation in low temperature responses by comparing variegated “Variegatum” and non-variegated “Green Pittosporum” cultivars. We found that leaf variegation is associated with impaired chloroplast development in the yellow sector, reduced chlorophyll content, strong accumulation of carotenoids and high levels of ROS. However, the photosynthetic efficiency was not obviously impaired in the variegated leaves. Also, leaf variegation plays low temperature protective function since “Variegatum” displayed strong and efficient ROS-scavenging enzymatic systems to buffer cold (10 °C)-induced damages. Transcriptome analysis under cold conditions revealed 309 differentially expressed genes between both cultivars. Distinctly, the strong cold response observed in “Variegatum” was essentially attributed to the up-regulation of HSP70/90 genes involved in cellular homeostasis; up-regulation of POD genes responsible for cell detoxification and up-regulation of FAD2 genes and subsequent down-regulation of GDSL genes leading to high accumulation of polyunsaturated fatty acids for cell membrane fluidity. Overall, our results indicated that leaf variegation is associated with changes in physiological, biochemical and molecular components playing low temperature protective function in P. tobira.
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Shelef O, Summerfield L, Lev-Yadun S, Villamarin-Cortez S, Sadeh R, Herrmann I, Rachmilevitch S. Thermal Benefits From White Variegation of Silybum marianum Leaves. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:688. [PMID: 31178888 PMCID: PMC6543541 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Leaves of the spiny winter annual Silybum marianum express white patches (variegation) that can cover significant surface areas, the outcome of air spaces formed between the epidermis and the green chlorenchyma. We asked: (1) what characterizes the white patches in S. marianum and what differs them from green patches? (2) Do white patches differ from green patches in photosynthetic efficiency under lower temperatures? We predicted that the air spaces in white patches have physiological benefits, elevating photosynthetic rates under low temperatures. To test our hypotheses we used both a variegated wild type and entirely green mutants. We grew the plants under moderate temperatures (20°C/10°C d/n) and compared them to plants grown under lower temperatures (15°C/5°C d/n). The developed plants were exposed to different temperatures for 1 h and their photosynthetic activity was measured. In addition, we compared in green vs. white patches, the reflectance spectra, patch structure, chlorophyll and dehydrin content, stomatal structure, plant growth, and leaf temperature. White patches were not significantly different from green patches in their biochemistry and photosynthesis. However, under lower temperatures, variegated wild-type leaves were significantly warmer than all-green mutants - possible explanations for that are discussed These findings support our hypothesis, that white variegation of S. marianum leaves has a physiological role, elevating leaf temperature during cold winter days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oren Shelef
- Department of Natural Resources, Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Liron Summerfield
- French Associates Institute for Agriculture and Biotechnology of Drylands, The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beersheba, Israel
| | - Simcha Lev-Yadun
- Department of Biology and Environment, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa–Oranim, Tivon, Israel
| | | | - Roy Sadeh
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Ittai Herrmann
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Shimon Rachmilevitch
- French Associates Institute for Agriculture and Biotechnology of Drylands, The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beersheba, Israel
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Transcriptome Profile of the Variegated Ficus microcarpa c.v. Milky Stripe Fig Leaf. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20061338. [PMID: 30884842 PMCID: PMC6470861 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20061338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Photosynthetic properties and transcriptomic profiles of green and white sectors of Ficus microcarpa (c.v. milky stripe fig) leaves were examined in naturally variegated plants. An anatomic analysis indicated that chloroplasts of the white sectors contained a higher abundance of starch granules and lacked stacked thylakoids. Moreover, no photosynthetic rate was detected in the white sectors. Transcriptome profile and differential expressed gene (DEG) analysis showed that genes encoding PSII core proteins were down-regulated in the white sectors. In genes related to chlorophyll metabolism, no DEGs were identified in the biosynthesis pathway of chlorophyll. However, genes encoding the first step of chlorophyll breakdown were up-regulated. The repression of genes involved in N-assimilation suggests that the white sectors were deprived of N. The mutation in the transcription factor mitochondrial transcription termination factor (mTERF) suggests that it induces colorlessness in leaves of the milky stripe fig.
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Ren J, Gunten ND, Konstantinov AS, Vencl FV, Ge S, Hu DL. Chewing Holes for Camouflage. Zoolog Sci 2018; 35:199-207. [PMID: 29882497 DOI: 10.2108/zs170136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Camouflaged objects are harder to detect if the background itself is more heterogeneous, and search becomes increasingly inefficient when the scene contains multiple items resembling the target. Some adult leaf beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) with highly specialized habits make holes on host plant leaves while feeding. We propose that leaf beetles camouflage themselves with their feeding holes. The presence of holes makes predators' visual search harder, thus giving beetles more time to escape from the leaf surface either by jumping (Galerucinae: Alticini) or rolling (rest of Chrysomelidae). Based on behavioral observations and analysis of 25 photographs of feeding leaf beetles (15 species), we demonstrate that adult leaf beetles camouflage themselves by creating holes of uniform size, approximately half of the beetle body size. Observation of the feeding behavior and anatomy of a typical hole-feeding beetle (Altica cirsicola) showed that the foregut volume and head-prothorax mobility of beetles are the two major factors that constrain the hole size. A computer-simulated visual search test showed that the greater the number of holes, and the more each hole approached beetle body size, the longer it took humans (as models) to locate a beetle on a leaf. This study reports a newly discovered kind of camouflage, hole-feeding camouflage, in leaf beetles, which makes visual detection or recognition more difficult by changing the environmental background. This type of camouflage may open up a range of new possibilities for studies in animal cognition analysis and evolution of anti-predation defenses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Ren
- 1 Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Natasha de Gunten
- 2 Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Georgia 30332, USA
| | - Alexander S Konstantinov
- 3 Systematic Entomology Laboratory, ARS, USDA, c/o Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Washington DC 20013, USA
| | - Fredric V Vencl
- 4 Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794, USA
| | - Siqin Ge
- 1 Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - David L Hu
- 2 Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Georgia 30332, USA.,5 School of Biology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
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Chen YS, Chesson P, Wu HW, Pao SH, Liu JW, Chien LF, Yong JWH, Sheue CR. Leaf structure affects a plant's appearance: combined multiple-mechanisms intensify remarkable foliar variegation. JOURNAL OF PLANT RESEARCH 2017; 130:311-325. [PMID: 27995375 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-016-0890-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2015] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The presence of foliar variegation challenges perceptions of leaf form and functioning. But variegation is often incorrectly identified and misinterpreted. The striking variegation found in juvenile Blastus cochinchinensis (Melastomataceae) provides an instructive case study of mechanisms and their ecophysiological implications. Variegated (white and green areas, vw and vg) and non-variegated leaves (normal green leaves, ng) of seedlings of Blastus were compared structurally with microtechniques, and characterized for chlorophyll content and fluorescence. More limited study of Sonerila heterostemon (Melastomataceae) and Kaempferia pulchra (Zingiberaceae) tested the generality of the findings. Variegation in Blastus combines five mechanisms: epidermal, air space, upper mesophyll, chloroplast and crystal, the latter two being new mechanisms. All mesophyll cells (vw, vg, ng) have functional chloroplasts with dense thylakoids. The vw areas are distinguished by flatter adaxial epidermal cells and central trichomes containing crystals, the presence of air spaces between the adaxial epidermis and a colorless spongy-like upper mesophyll containing smaller and fewer chloroplasts. The vw area is further distinguished by having the largest spongy-tissue chloroplasts and fewer stomata. Both leaf types have similar total chlorophyll content and similar F v/F m (maximum quantum yield of PSII), but vg has significantly higher F v/F m than ng. Variegation in Sonerila and Kaempferia is also caused by combined mechanisms, including the crystal type in Kaempferia. This finding of combined mechanisms in three different species suggests that combined mechanisms may occur more commonly in nature than current understanding. The combined mechanisms in Blastus variegated leaves represent intricate structural modifications that may compensate for and minimize photosynthetic loss, and reflect changing plant needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Shiuan Chen
- Department of Life Sciences and Center for Global Change Biology, National Chung Hsing University, 250, Kuo Kuang Rd., Taichung, 402, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Peter Chesson
- Department of Life Sciences and Center for Global Change Biology, National Chung Hsing University, 250, Kuo Kuang Rd., Taichung, 402, Taiwan, Republic of China
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA
| | - Ho-Wei Wu
- Genome and Systems Biology Degree Program, National Taiwan University, No.1, Sec. 4, Roosevelt Rd., Taipei, 106, Taiwan, Republic of China
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, No.128, Sec. 2, Academia Rd, Taipei, 115, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Shang-Hung Pao
- Department of Life Sciences and Center for Global Change Biology, National Chung Hsing University, 250, Kuo Kuang Rd., Taichung, 402, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Jian-Wei Liu
- Department of Life Sciences and Center for Global Change Biology, National Chung Hsing University, 250, Kuo Kuang Rd., Taichung, 402, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Lee-Feng Chien
- Department of Life Sciences and Center for Global Change Biology, National Chung Hsing University, 250, Kuo Kuang Rd., Taichung, 402, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Jean W H Yong
- School of Plant Biology, University of Western Australia, 35, Stirling Highway, Perth, Western Australia, 6009, Australia
| | - Chiou-Rong Sheue
- Department of Life Sciences and Center for Global Change Biology, National Chung Hsing University, 250, Kuo Kuang Rd., Taichung, 402, Taiwan, Republic of China.
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721, USA.
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Tiokhin L. Do Symptoms of Illness Serve Signaling Functions? (Hint: Yes). QUARTERLY REVIEW OF BIOLOGY 2016; 91:177-95. [DOI: 10.1086/686811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Bone RE, Smith JAC, Arrigo N, Buerki S. A macro-ecological perspective on crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) photosynthesis evolution in Afro-Madagascan drylands: Eulophiinae orchids as a case study. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2015; 208:469-81. [PMID: 26192467 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 06/18/2015] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) photosynthesis is an adaptation to water and atmospheric CO2 deficits that has been linked to diversification in dry-adapted plants. We investigated whether CAM evolution can be associated with the availability of new or alternative niches, using Eulophiinae orchids as a case study. Carbon isotope ratios, geographical and climate data, fossil records and DNA sequences were used to: assess the prevalence of CAM in Eulophiinae orchids; characterize the ecological niche of extant taxa; infer divergence times; and estimate whether CAM is associated with niche shifts. CAM evolved in four terrestrial lineages during the late Miocene/Pliocene, which have uneven diversification patterns. These lineages originated in humid habitats and colonized dry/seasonally dry environments in Africa and Madagascar. Additional key features (variegation, heterophylly) evolved in the most species-rich CAM lineages. Dry habitats were also colonized by a lineage that includes putative mycoheterotrophic taxa. These findings indicate that the switch to CAM is associated with environmental change. With its suite of adaptive traits, this group of orchids represents a unique opportunity to study the adaptations to dry environments, especially in the face of projected global aridification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth E Bone
- Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, TW9 3AE, UK
| | - J Andrew C Smith
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3RB, UK
| | - Nils Arrigo
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, CH-1015, Switzerland
| | - Sven Buerki
- Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London, SW7 5BD, UK
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Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev-Yadun
- Department of Biology & Environment; Faculty of Natural Sciences; University of Haifa - Oranim; Tivon 36006 Israel
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Gianoli E, Carrasco-Urra F. Leaf mimicry in a climbing plant protects against herbivory. Curr Biol 2014; 24:984-7. [PMID: 24768053 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2014.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2013] [Revised: 01/22/2014] [Accepted: 03/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Mimicry refers to adaptive similarity between a mimic organism and a model. Mimicry in animals is rather common, whereas documented cases in plants are rare, and the associated benefits are seldom elucidated [1, 2]. We show the occurrence of leaf mimicry in a climbing plant endemic to a temperate rainforest. The woody vine Boquila trifoliolata mimics the leaves of its supporting trees in terms of size, shape, color, orientation, petiole length, and/or tip spininess. Moreover, sequential leaf mimicry occurs when a single individual vine is associated with different tree species. Leaves of unsupported vines differed from leaves of climbing plants closely associated with tree foliage but did not differ from those of vines climbing onto leafless trunks. Consistent with an herbivory-avoidance hypothesis, leaf herbivory on unsupported vines was greater than that on vines climbing on trees but was greatest on vines climbing onto leafless trunks. Thus, B. trifoliolata gains protection against herbivory not merely by climbing and thus avoiding ground herbivores [3] but also by climbing onto trees whose leaves are mimicked. Unlike earlier cases of plant mimicry or crypsis, in which the plant roughly resembles a background or color pattern [4-7] or mimics a single host [8, 9], B. trifoliolata is able to mimic several hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernesto Gianoli
- Departamento de Biología, Universidad de La Serena, Casilla 554, La Serena, Chile; Departamento de Botánica, Universidad de Concepción, Casilla 160-C, Concepción, Chile.
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La Rocca N, Pupillo P, Puppi G, Rascio N. Erythronium dens-canis L. (Liliaceae): an unusual case of change of leaf mottling. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2014; 74:108-117. [PMID: 24291157 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2013.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2013] [Accepted: 11/07/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Erythronium dens-canis is an early-flowering understory lily of southern Europe with two leaves and a single flower, although a number of plants have only one leaf and do not flower. The leaves are mottled with silvery flecks and brown patches, that gradually vanish turning to a lively green color. The nature and function of this striking variegation pattern were investigated in differently colored leaf parts following the springtime color change. Tissue organization was examined by light and electron microscopy; photosynthetic pigments were analyzed by spectrophotometry and HPLC; chlorophyll fluorescence parameters were evaluated by MINI-PAM. The results showed that brown patches originated in vacuolar anthocyanins in the subepidermal cell layer while air spaces between the upper epidermis and underlying chlorenchyma resulted in silvery flecks. The two leaf areas did not differ in photosynthetic pigments, chloroplast organization and photosynthetic parameters (F(v)/F(m), NPQ, rETR). Greening of brown patches due to anthocyanin resorption was faster in non-flowering plants than in flowering ones, occurring only when young fruits were developing. Anthocyanin disappearance did not change the structural-functional features of photosynthetic tissues. As a whole the results suggest that the anthocyanin pigmentation of E. dens-canis leaves does not affect the photosynthetic light use and has no photoprotective function. It is proposed that the complex leaf color pattern may act as a camouflage to escape herbivores, while the reflective silvery spots may have a role in attracting pollinators of this early-flowering species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicoletta La Rocca
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/B, I-35131 Padova, Italy.
| | - Paolo Pupillo
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnologies, University of Bologna, Via Irnerio 42, I-40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Giovanna Puppi
- Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, University of Bologna, Via Irnerio 42, I-40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Nicoletta Rascio
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/B, I-35131 Padova, Italy
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Yamazaki K, Lev-Yadun S. Dark axils and nodes in various plant species may serve as defensive mimicry of beetle and beetle faeces. J NAT HIST 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/00222933.2013.836762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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15
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Strauss SY, Cacho NI. Nowhere to Run, Nowhere to Hide: The Importance of Enemies and Apparency in Adaptation to Harsh Soil Environments. Am Nat 2013; 182:E1-14. [DOI: 10.1086/670754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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La Rocca N, Rascio N, Pupillo P. Variegation in Arum italicum leaves. A structural-functional study. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2011; 49:1392-1398. [PMID: 22078376 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2011.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2011] [Accepted: 09/14/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The presence of pale-green flecks on leaves (speckling) is a frequent character among herbaceous species from shady places and is usually due to local loosening of palisade tissue (air space type of variegation). In the winter-green Arum italicum L. (Araceae), dark-green areas of variegated leaf blades are ca. 400 μm thick with a chlorophyll content of 1080 mg m⁻² and a palisade parenchyma consisting of a double layer of oblong cells. Pale-green areas are 25% thinner, have 26% less chlorophyll and contain a single, loose layer of short palisade cells. Full-green leaves generally present only one compact layer of cylindrical palisade cells and the same pigment content as dark-green sectors, but the leaf blade is 13% thinner. A spongy parenchyma with extensive air space is present in all leaf types. Green cells of all tissues have normal chloroplasts. Assays of photosynthetic activities by chlorophyll fluorescence imaging and O₂ exchange measurements showed that variegated pale-green and dark-green sectors as well as full-green leaves have comparable photosynthetic activities on a leaf area basis at saturating illumination. However, full-green leaves require a higher saturating light with respect to variegated sectors, and pale-green sectors support relatively higher photosynthesis rates on a chlorophyll basis. We conclude that i) variegation in this species depends on number and organization of palisade cell layers and can be defined as a "variable palisade" type, and ii) the variegated habit has no limiting effects on the photosynthetic energy budget of A. italicum, consistent with the presence of variegated plants side by side to full-green ones in natural populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicoletta La Rocca
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Via U. Bassi, 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy.
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Reeves JL. Vision should not be overlooked as an important sensory modality for finding host plants. ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 2011; 40:855-863. [PMID: 22251686 DOI: 10.1603/en10212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
In the last 50 yr, the role of vision in insect interactions with host plants has received relatively little attention. This lack of research is associated with a number of assumptions about chemical cues being the ultimate sensory determinants of host finding. This article presents arguments and detailed evidence to refute these assumptions. Insects from essentially all phytophagous orders use vision for locating host plants, and some recent examples have shown that vision can be even more important than olfaction. Moreover, a number of insects have the ability to visually differentiate host species. This ability means that the visual capabilities of phytophagous insects should not be underestimated. Visual cues always should be considered and integrated into studies of host finding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justin L Reeves
- Department of Biological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44242, USA.
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Zheng SJ, Snoeren TAL, Hogewoning SW, van Loon JJA, Dicke M. Disruption of plant carotenoid biosynthesis through virus-induced gene silencing affects oviposition behaviour of the butterfly Pieris rapae. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2010; 186:733-45. [PMID: 20298487 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03213.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Optical plant characteristics are important cues to plant-feeding insects. In this article, we demonstrate for the first time that silencing the phytoene desaturase (PDS) gene, encoding a key enzyme in plant carotenoid biosynthesis, affects insect oviposition site selection behaviour. Virus-induced gene silencing employing tobacco rattle virus was used to knock down endogenous PDS expression in three plant species (Arabidopsis thaliana, Brassica nigra and Nicotiana benthamiana) by its heterologous gene sequence from Brassica oleracea. We investigated the consequences of the silencing of PDS on oviposition behaviour by Pieris rapae butterflies on Arabidopsis and Brassica plants; first landing of the butterflies on Arabidopsis plants (to eliminate an effect of contact cues); first landing on Arabidopsis plants enclosed in containers (to eliminate an effect of volatiles); and caterpillar growth on Arabidopsis plants. Our results show unambiguously that P. rapae has an innate ability to visually discriminate between green and variegated green-whitish plants. Caterpillar growth was significantly lower on PDS-silenced than on empty vector control plants. This study presents the first analysis of PDS function in the interaction with an herbivorous insect. We conclude that virus-induced gene silencing is a powerful tool for investigating insect-plant interactions in model and nonmodel plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si-Jun Zheng
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University, PO Box 8031, 6700 EH Wageningen, The Netherlands
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Lee D, Gould K. Three birds with one stone: moas, heteroblasty and the New Zealand flora. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2009; 184:282-284. [PMID: 19796335 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.03025.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- David Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - Kevin Gould
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
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