The role of Ca(2+) and Na (+) membrane transport in brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) spermatozoa motility

Osmoregulation in fish sperm

In most fish exhibiting external fertilization, spermatozoa become motile after release into water, triggered by differences between intracellular and extracellular conditions such as osmotic pressure, ion composition, and pH. The rapid change in osmolarity initiating spermatozoon motility induces osmotic pressure, resulting in active water movement across the cell membrane. Mechanisms of ion and water transport across the plasma membrane and cell volume regulation are important in maintaining structure and functional integrity of the cell. The capacity of the fish spermatozoon plasma membrane to adapt to dramatic environmental changes is an essential prerequisite for motility and successful fertilization. Adaptation to change in external osmolality may be the basis of spermatozoon function and an indicator of sperm quality. The involvement of specific water channels (aquaporins) in cell volume regulation and motility is highly likely. The goal of this review is to describe basic mechanisms of water transport and their role in fish spermatozoon physiology, focusing on osmoresistance, cell volume regulation, motility, and survival.

Fish sperm motility analysis: the central role of the flagellum

Motility analysis of spermatozoa relies on the investigation of either head trajectories or flagellum characteristics. Those two sets of parameters are far from being independent, the flagellum playing the role of motor, whereas the head plays a passive role of cargo. Therefore, quantitative descriptions of head trajectories represent a simplification of the complex pattern of whole sperm cell motion, resulting from the waves developed by the flagellum. The flagellum itself responds to a large variety of signals that precisely control its axoneme to allow activation, acceleration, slowing down or reorientation of the whole spermatozoon. Thus, it is obvious that analysis of flagellum characteristics provides information on the original source of movement and orientation of the sperm cell and presents additional parameters that enrich the panoply of quantitative descriptors of sperm motility. In this review, we briefly describe the methodologies used to obtain good-quality images of fish spermatozoa (head and especially flagellum) while they move fast and the methods developed for their analysis. The paper also aims to establish a link between classical analyses by computer-aided sperm analysis (CASA) and the descriptors generated by fish sperm flagellum analysis, and emphasises the information to be gained regarding motility performance from flagellum motion data.

Sperm motility in fishes: (III) diversity of regulatory signals from membrane to the axoneme

Fish spermatozoa acquire potential for motility in the sperm duct where they are immotile. Osmolality of the seminal plasma is a key factor to maintain spermatozoa in the quiescent state in either freshwater or marine fishes. However, potassium (K⁺) ions prevent spermatozoa motility in salmonid and sturgeon fishes, while CO₂ inhibits spermatozoa motility in flatfishes. Once, spermatozoa are released at spawning, their motility is initiated in hypo-osmotic and hyper-osmotic environments in freshwater and marine fishes, respectively. Some substances produced by the testes (a progestin), or released from oocytes (peptides) induce spermatozoa hypermotility in some marine fishes including the Atlantic croaker and Pacific herrings, respectively. Duration of spermatozoa motility is short, lasting for a few seconds to few minutes in most fishes due to rapid depletion of energy required for the beating of the motility apparatus called axoneme. In the osmotic-activated spermatozoa, K⁺ and water effluxes occur in freshwater and marine fishes, respectively, which trigger spermatozoa motility signaling. In general, initiation of axonemal beating is associated with an increase in intracellular calcium (Ca²⁺) ions in spermatozoa of both freshwater and marine fishes and a post- or pre-increase in intracellular pH, while cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) remains unchanged. However, axonemal beating is cAMP-dependent in demembranated spermatozoa of salmonid and sturgeon fishes. Calcium from extracellular environment or intracellular stores supply required Ca²⁺ concentration for axonemal beating. Several axonemal proteins have been so far identified in fishes that are activated by Ca²⁺ and cAMP, directly or mediated by protein kinase C and protein kinase A, respectively. The present study reviews differences and similarities in complex regulatory signals controlling spermatozoa motility initiation in fishes, and notes physiological mechanisms that await elucidation.

Ovarian fluid impacts flagellar beating and biomechanical metrics of sperm between alternative reproductive tactics

Alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs) are prevalent in nature, where smaller parasitic males typically have better sperm quality than larger territorial guard males. At present, it is unclear what is causing this phenomenon. Our objective was to gain insights into sperm form and function by examining flagellar beating patterns (beat frequency, wave amplitude, bend length, bend angle, wave velocity) and biomechanical sperm metrics (velocity, hydrodynamic power output, propulsive efficiency) of wild spawning Chinook salmon ARTs. Ovarian fluid and milt were collected to form a series of eight experimental blocks, each composed of ovarian fluid from a unique female and sperm from a unique pair of parasitic jack and guard hooknose males. Sperm from each ART were activated in river water and ovarian fluid. Flagellar parameters were evaluated from recordings using high-speed video microscopy and biomechanical metrics were quantified. We show that ART has an impact on flagellar beating, where jacks had a higher bend length and bend angle than hooknoses. Activation media also impacted the pattern of flagellar parameters, such that beat frequency, wave velocity and bend angle declined, while wave amplitude of flagella increased when ovarian fluid was incorporated into activation media. Furthermore, we found that sperm from jacks swam faster than those from hooknoses and required less hydrodynamic power output to propel themselves in river water and ovarian fluid. Jack sperm were also more efficient at swimming than hooknose sperm, and propulsive efficiency increased when cells were activated in ovarian fluid. The results demonstrate that sperm biomechanics may be driving divergence in competitive reproductive success between ARTs.

Role of Ca2+ in the IVM of spermatozoa from the sterlet Acipenser ruthenus

The role of Ca2+ in sturgeon sperm maturation and motility was investigated. Sperm from mature male sterlets (Acipenser ruthenus) were collected from the Wolffian duct and testis 24 h after hormone induction. Testicular spermatozoa (TS) were incubated in Wolffian duct seminal fluid (WDSF) for 5 min at 20°C and were designated ‘TS after IVM’ (TSM). Sperm motility was activated in media with different ion compositions, with motility parameters analysed from standard video microscopy records. To investigate the role of calcium transport in the IVM process, IVM was performed (5 min at 20°C) in the presence of 2 mM EGTA, 100 µM Verapamil or 100 µM Tetracaine. No motility was observed in the case of TS (10 mM Tris, 25 mM NaCl, 50 mM Sucr with or without the addition of 2 mM EGTA). Both incubation of TS in WDSF and supplementation of the activation medium with Ca2+ led to sperm motility. The minimal Ca2+ concentration required for motility activation of Wolffian duct spermatozoa, TS and TSM was determined (1–2 nM for Wolffian duct spermatozoa and TSM; approximately 0.6 mM for TS). Motility was obtained after the addition of verapamil to the incubation medium during IVM, whereas the addition of EGTA completely suppressed motility, implying Ca2+ involvement in sturgeon sperm maturation. Further studies into the roles of Ca2+ transport in sturgeon sperm maturation and motility are required.

Control of sturgeon sperm motility: Antagonism between K+ ions concentration and osmolality

Spermatozoa are stored in a quiescent state in the male reproductive tract and motility is induced in response to various environmental stimuli, such as change of osmolality (general case) and a decrease of extracellular K+ in fish from Acipenseridae family. This study was aimed to investigate the relationship between osmolality and extracellular K+ concentration in controlling sperm motility in sturgeon. Pre-incubation of sturgeon sperm for 5s in hypertonic solutions of glycerol, NaCl, or sucrose (each of 335 mOsm/kg osmolality) prepares sturgeon spermatozoa to become fully motile in presence of high concentration of K+ ions (15 mM), which has previously been demonstrated to fully repress motility. Furthermore, presence of 0.5mM KCl during the high osmolality pre-incubation exposure completely prevented subsequent spermatozoa activation in a K+-rich media. Manipulating the transport of K+ ions by the presence of K+ ionophore (valinomycin), it was concluded that once an efflux of K+ ions, the precursor of sturgeon sperm motility activation, is taking place, spermatozoa then become insensitive to a large extracellular K+ concentration.